Irrigation and Drainage Structures Engineering Research

technical paper Irrigation network management

Explaining the role of farmers' self-efficacy and ease of technology application on the behavior of using low-pressure irrigation systems

Arezou Mokhtari hesari; Alireza Nemati

Volume 26, Autumn , September 2025, Pages 16-1

https://doi.org/10.22092/idser.2025.370504.1628

Abstract

Extended Abstract Introduction The majority of agricultural areas worldwide are managed using traditional surface irrigation methods. However, these methods face significant challenges, including inefficient water use and suboptimal productivity. Given their widespread use and low efficiency, improving ... Read More Extended Abstract Introduction The majority of agricultural areas worldwide are managed using traditional surface irrigation methods. However, these methods face significant challenges, including inefficient water use and suboptimal productivity. Given their widespread use and low efficiency, improving surface irrigation systems has become essential. In recent decades, numerous initiatives have aimed to enhance the efficiency of irrigation systems and management practices. One such advancement is the development of low-pressure irrigation systems. Studies based on behavioral theories examining farmers’ adoption of irrigation technologies have identified several influential factors. Accordingly, this study aims to explain the role of technology ease of use and farmers’ self-efficacy in influencing their behavior toward adopting and using modern low-pressure irrigation systems. Materials and Methods The method of this research follows a quantitative paradigm. In terms of purpose, it is applied research, and in terms of data collection, it is descriptive research conducted through a survey. In total, 112,010 farmers in East Azerbaijan Province formed the study population, and a sample of 393 was selected using the Cochran formula through multi-stage sampling. The main data collection tool was a researcher-designed questionnaire consisting of three parts: the first part relates to the individual characteristics of the farmers, the second part concerns the characteristics of the exploitation system, and the third part includes items related to the main variables. The face and content validity of the questionnaire were confirmed by professors and subject matter experts. The reliability of the research instrument was determined using Cronbach’s alpha, and construct validity was assessed through convergent validity using confirmatory factor analysis. SPSS 20 and AMOS 21 software were used for data analysis. Results The measurement and structural model analyses indicated that model fit was acceptable across multiple indices and that the hypothesized relationships among the variables were logically consistent. Hypothesis testing revealed that all proposed relationships were statistically significant. Specifically, there was a positive and significant relationship between the perceived ease of use of the low-pressure irrigation system and farmers’ willingness to adopt it. Additionally, farmers’ self-efficacy was found to be significantly associated with their willingness to use the technology. Overall, structural equation modeling showed that ease of use and self-efficacy together explained 60% of the variance in farmers’ willingness to adopt low-pressure irrigation systems, with ease of use emerging as the stronger predictor. Conclusions This study investigated the factors influencing farmers’ adoption of low-pressure irrigation systems. Specifically, it examined the effects of perceived ease of use of the technology and farmers’ self-efficacy on their willingness to adopt such systems. The findings confirmed that both factors significantly influence adoption, with ease of use playing a particularly strong role. When the equipment, connections, and maintenance of the irrigation system are simple to operate and learn, farmers are more likely to adopt low-pressure irrigation. Additionally, farmers’ confidence in their ability to implement water conservation strategies enhances their conservation behavior. In other words, effective water conservation depends on farmers’ understanding and belief in their own capabilities.

A Review of Water Consumption Management Indicators of different Crops in Iran

Volume 25, Issue 94 , June 2024, , Pages 1-16

https://doi.org/10.22092/idser.2024.364605.1569

Abstract

Extended AbstractIntroduction In terms of water consumption in different sectors, in Iran as in other countries, a significant part of surface and groundwater resources is used in agricultural sector. For the amount of water consumed in Iran's agricultural sector, different numbers have been reported ... Read More Extended AbstractIntroduction In terms of water consumption in different sectors, in Iran as in other countries, a significant part of surface and groundwater resources is used in agricultural sector. For the amount of water consumed in Iran's agricultural sector, different numbers have been reported in various sources. In the past three decades, water consumption in agricultural sector in various sources and methods has been reported between 44 and 86 billion cubic meters (Movaheddanesh, 1994; Ghodratnema, 1998; Mohammad-Vali-Samani, 2005; Nasseri et al., 2017; 2018). The physical water productivity is also one of the important indicators of irrigation management, which is determined by using the amount of product produced per unit of applied irrigation water. Abbasi et al. (2017) estimated and analyzed water productivity values in Iran for different years. They estimated the values of water productivity varying from 0.94 to 1.29 kg/m3 and average being 1.07 kg/m3. Abbasi et al. (2019) also showed that water productivity index in Iran had an upward trend with a slope of 0.045 kg per year. It varied from 1.0 kg/m3 in 2008 to about 1.45 kg/m3 in 2017. Past researches regarding the estimation of water consumption in agricultural sector have been reported with estimation methods such as water balance method, which was not accurate and was associated with errors. On the other hand, the figures presented for the amount of water consumed in agricultural sector are very different and there are doubts about their accuracy. Despite the importance of the issue, accurate information on the amount of irrigation water for agricultural crops in different regions of Iran is not available and this issue has always been one of the main concerns of the water industry managers and planners. Therefore, carrying out a research work that leads to more accurate numbers about the amount of applied irrigation water for different crops, can be of great help to the decision-making of officials related to water and agriculture. The main goal of this article is a comprehensive evaluation of water management indicators in agricultural sector (including the water productivity and applied irrigation water for different crops). MethodologyField measurements including applied irrigation water and crop yield were carried out for at least one cropping season in the production hubs of each crop. Twelve crops included 12 wheat, rice, barley, fodder corn, alfalfa, sugar beet, sugar cane, beans, sunflower, cotton, rapeseed, and soybean, 17 garden crops included saffron, apple, olive, orange, tangerine, peach, nectarine, plum, lemon, fig, grape, date, pomegranate, walnut, almond, pistachio, and cherry and 6 vegetable and summer crops were tomato, watermelon, potato, cucumber, melon, and onion. These crops covered more than 85% of the cultivated area and irrigated lands in different provinces. For each crop, applied irrigation water was measured in a crop season and the yield for one year or the average of two years, but for garden plants, due to climate changes and frost damages, the average yield of 1-3 years was determined and used in the analysis. Physical water productivity of irrigation water from the ratio of crop yield to applied irrigation water and water productivity from the ratio of crop yield to water (total volume of irrigation water and effective precipitation) and gross income per unit of applied irrigation water was calculated from the product of crop yield in the sales price divided by the applied irrigation water. In this research, the cluster analysis model was used to determine the homogeneous crops. Results and DiscussionThe results showed that applied irrigation water for different crops varied from 3984 for rapeseed to 32500 cubic meters per hectare for sugarcane. So that the weighted average applied irrigation water of 35 studied crops was determined to be 8032 cubic meters per hectare. This index was 9162, 7669 and 7247 cubic meters per hectare for garden, agricultural, vegetable and summer crops, respectively. Also, the total applied water used for the 35 studied crops was estimated at 61.7 billion cubic meters and the total irrigation water for other crops that were not evaluated in this research was estimated at 9.4 billion cubic meters. The total water used in irrigated crops was estimated at 71 billion cubic meters, which was about 70% of the total renewable water in Iran. The weighted average of irrigation water productivity and water productivity of the studied crops was determined as 1.9 and 1.5 kg/m3, respectively. Saffron and pistachio provided the highest gross income per unit of irrigation water and sugarcane, soybean, barley, fodder corn, wheat and alfalfa had the lowest values. ConclusionsThe results of this research provided valuable information for managers and decision makers in different provinces of Iran.

The Feasibility of Using New Technologies in the Modification and Reconstruction of Water Transmission Channels During Operation (Case Study: The Main Channel of Moghan Irrigation Network- Iran)

Volume 24, Issue 91 , November 2023, , Pages 22-49

https://doi.org/10.22092/idser.2023.362797.1548

Abstract

Extended Abstract Introuction This study aims to examine building modern irrigation networks to provide the possibility of productivity of water and soil resources by creating facilities, in which the optimal technical principles and criteria of hydraulic and economic design ... Read More Extended Abstract Introuction This study aims to examine building modern irrigation networks to provide the possibility of productivity of water and soil resources by creating facilities, in which the optimal technical principles and criteria of hydraulic and economic design are observed. In this regard, the main water transfer channel plays a vital and exceptional role in supplying the required water for agricultural lands covered by the network and for the prosperity of the regional and national agricultural economy. Covering the water transmission channels in operation is always one of the numerous problems and problems of operation and maintenance of large irrigation networks in the world. In Iran, due to the major issues and problems of exploitation in the lands covered by modern networks, such as land drainage due to water leakage from the bodies of earthen canals, concrete covering of canals has always been considered to prevent water wastage, and it is on the agenda. The deputy of water resources affairs of the Ministry of Energy and regional water companies was established. The main canal of the South Moghan irrigation network in Iran with a transfer capacity of 80 cubic meters per second, the main channel of Upper Garabagh with a capacity of 110 cubic meters per second and the main water transfer channel of Upper Shirvan with a capacity of 85 cubic meters per second in the Republic of Azerbaijan are among them. Material and Methods The withdrawal of water needed by the Moghan irrigation and drainage network from the Aras River is directed through the Mil and Moghan diversion dam before entering the main channel to a sediment catchment basin to trap suspended sediments in it. This calm sediment collection pond with a maximum water intake of 95 cubic meters per second has four rectangular units and each unit consists of three galleries, 15 cubic meters of which are returned to the river after washing, and the rest enters the main channel. In the current state, due to the reduction of vegetation in the middle basin of the Aras River at a distance of 260 km from the Aras Reservoir Dam upstream of the Mil and Moghan Diversion Dam and the subsequent increase in the concentration of suspended load in the Aras River, the trapping efficiency of the suspended load in the sedimentation basin has decreased to its minimum value. For this reason, sediments exceeding the permissible limit of 18 to 25 g/L enter the water transfer channel. Even though more than 45 years of the useful life of the network have passed, covering operations of the main channel with materials, such as impermeable soil (compaction of bed soil, cover with a thin compacted layer of clay, cover with bentonite) or concrete cover to prevent washing water and reduce water loss from the earthen body of the main channel has happened very little and locally. Results and Discussion Considering the necessity of realizing the research objectives, the feasibility of using the proposed method to carry out the executive operations of improvement, reconstruction, and concrete covering of the soil section of the canal, without interrupting the water flow in the main water transmission channel of South Moghan from its kilometer 1 to 11, was conducted (Hasanpour and Tabatabai, 2010). The method of constructing a temporary diverting channel along the main channel by constructing earthen dikes in the cross-section of the main channel to cut off the water flow within the scope of operational operations of the enclosed sections between the dikes and directing the required water flow by creating a diverting section in the side wall of the channel upstream of the earthen dike into the temporary diversion channel and re-directing the water flow through the end earthen dyke downstream into the main channel for the implementation of repair and reconstruction operations and concrete coating in several operating intervals of the earth section of the channel without interrupting the water flow by spending exorbitant costs of the construction operation of the temporary diversion channel and the concrete cover of the main channel were done. Therefore, due to the imposition of excessive and unconventional financial burden in the method of using a temporary diversion channel on the implementation of the main channel modification and reconstruction plan, to reduce the excessive conventional costs, the new method of "wall structure of mobile separating blades" as a solution suitable and cost-effective for its use and application in the repair and reconstruction of the canal was suggested. The regional water company also promised to assist in the application and use of the new technology proposed to operate the project in the main Moghan canal, based on the urgent need and necessity of the issue. In this method, the minimum cost is 2.7 times lower than the cost of constructing a diversion channel per unit length (1 km). Also, in carrying out dredging operations, cleaning and smoothing the section of the main canal of southern Moghan, similar to the long-boom excavator, which was invented by Professor Telman Hajief to carry out dredging operations in special conditions and channels with large sections, using modern technology, was used. (Hashmi-Shadheni et al., 2016) Conclusions Since the well-known methods and proposals are accompanied by defects even after completion, therefore a new effective method was developed under the title of "mobile separating blade wall method", which is the mechanism of operationalizing the technical and technological parameters of its construction widely. It was investigated and researched. First, the operation of the mobile separating blade wall structure in laboratory conditions was investigated experimentally. The division of the main channel sections in the method of the mobile separating blade wall structure, drying the enclosed operation field, carrying out soil operations, concreting, and its technological technology was presented, and determined, that in this method, carrying out the operation of covering the sections of the water transmission channel using concrete panels Arme will be ready, easier and very affordable. Also, the calculation of the technical and economic comparison indicators of the construction, along with the transfer of the required costs downstream with different methods showed that the mobile dividing wall method is very suitable and economical in terms of technical, technological, and economic aspects in the major repairs and reconstruction of the main channels. The proposed method is a new technique that for its application in production, there will be an urgent need to conduct practical research in nature. Therefore, it is suggested that the presented method be conducted and evaluated for other networks so that all the country's networks can be improved and modified more cost-effectively.

Evaluation of environmental performance of mole drain on rice cultivation in paddy fields

Volume 24, Issue 92 , March 2024, , Pages 131-106

https://doi.org/10.22092/idser.2024.365355.1575

Abstract

Extended Abstract Introduction It is possible to effectively control water in paddy fields, prevent flooding problems, and create optimal conditions for the growth of agricultural products with simultaneous and correct management of irrigation and drainage. Due to the high initial cost of the construction ... Read More Extended Abstract Introduction It is possible to effectively control water in paddy fields, prevent flooding problems, and create optimal conditions for the growth of agricultural products with simultaneous and correct management of irrigation and drainage. Due to the high initial cost of the construction of subsurface drainage, Mole drainage is a suitable and more economical alternative in clay soils. Constructing the mole drain at a critical depth and passing the water through the cracks, improves the soil conditions and removes excess water from the soil surface. Mulqueen (1985), reported that gravel mole drain is a suitable alternative to traditional mole drain. Considering the limited studies in the field of mole drainage, the purpose of this study is to evaluate the performance of low-cost mole drainage for draining excess water from paddy fields and its environmental effects. Therefore, the effect of traditional mole and gravel mole drain on drainage water quality and control of the water table of paddy fields in the mid and end of rice season was investigated. Materials and Methods The experiment was conducted in the agricultural year of 2022-2023 in the research farm of the Faculty of Agricultural Sciences, University of Guilan (IRAN). The split-plot experiment was implemented in a randomized complete block design in three replications under the main drainage treatment on two levels: (1) Traditional mole drain (without gravel) and (2) Gravel mole drain and the sub-treatment of irrigation method in two levels: (1) Flood irrigation and (2) Alternative irrigation. In the stages of tillering and harvesting, mid and end season drainage were done respectively. During the drainage period, the water table was measured with a piezometer. By sampling the drainage water, its quality parameters including acidity, electrical conductivity, nitrate, nitrite, phosphate, sulfate, chloride, total suspended and dissolved solids, sodium, calcium, magnesium, and ammonium were measured. The results of the investigated treatments were statistically analyzed using SAS software. Results and Discussion With the start of mid season drainage, after one day, the water table reached the middle of the soil profile and more than half of the root development depth was in anaerobic conditions. Five days after the drainage in the traditional mole drain, the depth of root development was in aerobic conditions. The highest value in average acidity and sodium adsorption ratio was 6.99 and 4.65 meq/l respectively in mid season in gravel mole drain and flood irrigation. The highest concentration of ammonium and nitrate in mid season drainage was 0.20 and 0.21 mg/l, respectively, and the highest average electrical conductivity and total dissolved solids at the end season were 3845 µS/cm and 2475 mg/l, respectively, in traditional mole drain and flood irrigation. In mid and end season drainage, the amount of total suspended solids in the mole drain with gravel was 60% and 88% higher than the traditional mole drain, respectively. The highest concentration of nitrite was obtained in the gravel mole drain and flood irrigation with a value of 6.75 mg/l during mid season drainage. The average concentration of phosphate and sulfate in gravel mole drain compared to the traditional mole in mid and end season decreased by 25 and 30%, respectively, and sulfate by 3 and 5.5%. Also, the average concentration of chloride in the gravel mole drain was lower than the traditional one. Conclusion The comparison of results indicated that the average amounts of electrical conductivity, total dissolved solids, sodium adsorption ratio, sodium, ammonium, phosphate, sulfate, and chloride of drainage water in mid and end season were lower in gravel mole drain than that in traditional one. The results of statistical analysis showed that the treatment of drainage, irrigation, and time at the level of one and five percent were effective on most of the parameters, while the values of electrical conductivity, total dissolved solids, and nitrite of the drainage water showed that their difference was not significant. The traditional mole drain was more successful in controlling the water table. A comparison of the quality parameters of drainage water with the standard of the Iranian Environmental Protection Organization for the discharge of drainage water into surface waters showed that most of the parameters, except for ammonium and total suspended solids, were within the permissible limits.

Determination of irrigation management indicators in peach and nectarine production in Iran

Volume 24, Issue 91 , November 2023, , Pages 50-69

https://doi.org/10.22092/idser.2023.363367.1556

Abstract

Extended AbstractProviding food security in scarcity conditions of water resources requires macro-planning for the supply, allocation and water consumption in different sections such as agricultural section. In Iran, like in other countries of the world, most fresh water resources are consumed in the ... Read More Extended AbstractProviding food security in scarcity conditions of water resources requires macro-planning for the supply, allocation and water consumption in different sections such as agricultural section. In Iran, like in other countries of the world, most fresh water resources are consumed in the agricultural sector. In this situation, one of the effective and practical solutions is the optimal use of irrigation water in the agricultural sector, which consumes the most water. The most basic component for optimal irrigation water management in Iran is the awareness of applied water in the production of various agricultural products under the farmers’ management conditions. Therefore, this study was conducted with the aim of appraising irrigation water management indicators such as seasonal applied water, yield , and irrigation water productivity, total water productivity (irrigation water plus plus effective rainfall ) in Azarbayjan Sharghi, Azarbayjan Gharbi, Ardabil, Alborz, Tehran, Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari, Fars, Qazvin, Markazi, Hamedan, Golastan and Mazandaran provinces as peach and nectarine production hubs in Iran.MethodologyIn this study, a field survey was conducted to measure applied irrigation water and yield under the gardeners’ management in peach and nectarine production hubs. This indicators was measured in 195 gardenes in Azarbayjan Sharghi, Azarbayjan Gharbi, Ardabil, Alborz, Tehran, Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari, Fars, Qazvin, Markazi, Hamedan, Golastan and Mazandaran provinces with different conditions of climates, irrigation methods (surface and drip), salinity of irrigation water and soil; and different peach and nectarine cultivars during growing season 2018-2019. To measuring irrigation water volume, after determining the inflow of water to the garden by carefully monitoring the garden irrigation time and measuring the irrigated area, the volume of irrigation water applied by peach and nectarine trees in each garden was measured. Crop yield was obtained in three consecutive years and their mean was used in the analysis. Irrigation water productivity (WPIrr) and total water productivity (WPIrr+pe) were calcucated as the ratio of yield to applied water and irrigation water plus effective rainfall, respectively. Then, the effect of modern irrigation methods (surface drip irrigation) on applied water, WPIrr and WPIrr+pe were investigated in the study areas. Analysis of variance was used to investigate the possible difference between yield, applied water and WP among the hubs. Data adequacy was assessed by using the method provided by Sarmad et al. (2001).Results and DiscussionThe results showed that the difference between average volume of water applied by gardeners, yield, WPIrr and WPIrr+pe, in the studied sites were significant at 5% probability level. The average amount of applied water by gardeners in Azarbayjan Sharghi, Azarbayjan Gharbi, Ardabil, Alborz, Tehran, Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari, Fars, Qazvin, Markazi, Hamedan, Golastan and Mazandaran provinces was 8617, 7178, 8140, 8137, 8568, 7763, 8814, 8675, 10806, 6428, 2842 and 2012 m3/ha, respectively, and the average was 6734m3/ha. The yield of peach and nectarine varied from 10 to 50 tons/ha with an average of 20 tons/ha. Irrigation water productivity (WPIrr) varied from 1.6 to 8.6 and its average was 3.06 kg/m3. The average WPIrr+pe for peach and nectarine was 2.44 kg/m3. The results showed that the average applied water for peach and nectarine orchards in the study areas except for Golestan and Mazandaran provinces for surface and drip irrigation methods were 9325 and 7098 m3/ha, respectively, (p<1%). Therefore, in drip irrigation method, applied water was 25% less and WPIrr was 34% higher. ConclusionsIn general, the results of this study provide useful information on irrigation water management indicators in peach and nectarine production to managers and water decision makers within Iran. Accordingly, in order to reduce the volume of irrigation water and improve peach and nectarine water productivity, it is recommended to use drip irrigation method in suitable climatic conditions where irrigation water is of good quality and the technical criteria of design, implementation, operation, and economic considerations are met. Also, training and application methods to improve the performance of surface irrigation to reduce evaporation and applied irrigation water is recommended.

Feasibility of Applying the Concept of Index Velocity in Estimating Discharge in Compound Channels

Volume 24, Issue 91 , November 2023, , Pages 1-21

https://doi.org/10.22092/idser.2023.363374.1553

Abstract

Extended Abstract Introduction Determining the discharge in rivers using the cross-sectional area-velocity method, especially under flood conditions, is associated with serious challenges. Due to advances in measurement techniques, many researchers have strongly suggested the use of non-contact methods. ... Read More Extended Abstract Introduction Determining the discharge in rivers using the cross-sectional area-velocity method, especially under flood conditions, is associated with serious challenges. Due to advances in measurement techniques, many researchers have strongly suggested the use of non-contact methods. The non-contact method that use surface velocity radar to determine the discharge are becoming more and more popular especially in flood conditions. This method is to use the concept of index velocity based on the generalization of surface velocity to mean velocity and discharge. Also index-velocity method was used for discharge monitoring or recording at streamflow- gaging stations with flow reversals, backwater effects, hysteresis effects and channel-roughness changes that the use of conventional "stage-discharge rating" method impractical or impossible. During floods, natural rivers appear in the form of a compound cross-section in their middle and end sections. Due to momentum exchange between main channel and flood plains, the flow hydraulic in compound channels is complicate. Most studies in index-velocity method are focused on prediction of the discharge in simple channels. Due to the hydraulic difference between the flow of simple and compound cross-sections, the velocity index (ratio of surface velocity to average velocity) for compound channels is still unknown. Methodology The purpose of this study is how to apply the index velocity method in flood conditions (compound sections) and actually determine the optimal velocity index in compound sections and the highest percentage of its location in the width of the compound section. Also, by performing dimensional analysis, the influence of relative roughness parameters, Froude number, relative depth and relative width on the velocity index in compound channels was investigated. In order to build a laboratory compound channel, a channel with a rectangular cross-section with a width and height of 60 cm with a metal frame and glass walls was used. The height of the flood plain in all tests is constant and equal to 7 cm and three different widths of the flood plain 40, 45 and 50 cm in the smooth state and also one state of the flood plain with a width of 40 cm with metal mesh in compound form was made. Velocity distribution measurements were made in the compound channel, in the main channel and floodplain at 7 or 8 transverse points. In the present study, the velocity index in compound channels at a fixed bed slope of 0.1% and for the relative depth of the main section is 4.2-6.12 relative roughness 0.0003-0.0031 and Froude number 0.14-0.79 has been studied. Results and discussion By examining the velocity index values across the compound cross-section it was found that the range of average of the velocity index in the width of the compound channels is 0.76-0.98 and with 63% relative frequency is in the range of 0.87-0.93. By fitting between all surface velocity and average velocity data in the entire compound cross-section, it was determined that the optimal value of the velocity index (with R2=0.95) for compound channels is 0.88 with value of absolute relative error of about 0.01-10.06% and an average relative error of 3.3%. The results showed that the increase in the relative roughness and Froude number of the approaching flow and the decrease in the relative depth in the floodplain cause a decrease in the velocity index. The relative error values of discharge estimation showed that in flood conditions (overbank), the velocity index value is different from the normal conditions (inbank) of the river and considering the same velocity index value for both normal and flood conditions will cause more error in the discharge estimation. By examining the location of the optimal value of the velocity index of 0.88 in the entire width of the compound section, it was determined that 71% of the density of points is located on the border of the compound channel and in the last quarter of the flood plain and the first half of the main section. Also, the velocity index is 0.92 in the main channel and 0.86 in flood plain, and if use them, a better estimate of the discharge in the compound channel is obtained. Analytical models of velocity distribution also showed that the velocity power law provides the best estimation of the velocity index than other models if the power index is chosen correctly. Conclusion The results showed that the use of the velocity index value of 0.88 for compound channels has an average relative error of about 3.3% in flow estimation. Therefore, by adjusting the default value, it is possible to improve the accuracy of flow estimation in flood conditions. In situations where the possibility of direct measurement in open channels (flood conditions) is not available, it is possible to use the cross section, the surface velocity at the border of flood plain and the main channel and the optimal velocity index of 0.88 can be accurately estimated.

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