Irrigation and Drainage Structures Engineering Research

technical paper Irrigation network management

Explaining the role of farmers' self-efficacy and ease of technology application on the behavior of using low-pressure irrigation systems

Arezou Mokhtari hesari; Alireza Nemati

Volume 26, Autumn , September 2025, Pages 16-1

https://doi.org/10.22092/idser.2025.370504.1628

Abstract

Extended AbstractIntroductionThe majority of agricultural areas worldwide are managed using traditional surface irrigation methods. However, these methods face significant challenges, including inefficient water use and suboptimal productivity. Given their widespread use and low efficiency, improving ... Read More Extended AbstractIntroductionThe majority of agricultural areas worldwide are managed using traditional surface irrigation methods. However, these methods face significant challenges, including inefficient water use and suboptimal productivity. Given their widespread use and low efficiency, improving surface irrigation systems has become essential. In recent decades, numerous initiatives have aimed to enhance the efficiency of irrigation systems and management practices. One such advancement is the development of low-pressure irrigation systems. Studies based on behavioral theories examining farmers’ adoption of irrigation technologies have identified several influential factors. Accordingly, this study aims to explain the role of technology ease of use and farmers’ self-efficacy in influencing their behavior toward adopting and using modern low-pressure irrigation systems. Materials and MethodsThe method of this research follows a quantitative paradigm. In terms of purpose, it is applied research, and in terms of data collection, it is descriptive research conducted through a survey. In total, 112,010 farmers in East Azerbaijan Province formed the study population, and a sample of 393 was selected using the Cochran formula through multi-stage sampling. The main data collection tool was a researcher-designed questionnaire consisting of three parts: the first part relates to the individual characteristics of the farmers, the second part concerns the characteristics of the exploitation system, and the third part includes items related to the main variables. The face and content validity of the questionnaire were confirmed by professors and subject matter experts. The reliability of the research instrument was determined using Cronbach’s alpha, and construct validity was assessed through convergent validity using confirmatory factor analysis. SPSS 20 and AMOS 21 software were used for data analysis.Results The measurement and structural model analyses indicated that model fit was acceptable across multiple indices and that the hypothesized relationships among the variables were logically consistent. Hypothesis testing revealed that all proposed relationships were statistically significant. Specifically, there was a positive and significant relationship between the perceived ease of use of the low-pressure irrigation system and farmers’ willingness to adopt it. Additionally, farmers’ self-efficacy was found to be significantly associated with their willingness to use the technology. Overall, structural equation modeling showed that ease of use and self-efficacy together explained 60% of the variance in farmers’ willingness to adopt low-pressure irrigation systems, with ease of use emerging as the stronger predictor. ConclusionsThis study investigated the factors influencing farmers’ adoption of low-pressure irrigation systems. Specifically, it examined the effects of perceived ease of use of the technology and farmers’ self-efficacy on their willingness to adopt such systems. The findings confirmed that both factors significantly influence adoption, with ease of use playing a particularly strong role. When the equipment, connections, and maintenance of the irrigation system are simple to operate and learn, farmers are more likely to adopt low-pressure irrigation. Additionally, farmers’ confidence in their ability to implement water conservation strategies enhances their conservation behavior. In other words, effective water conservation depends on farmers’ understanding and belief in their own capabilities.

Original Article Hydraulic

Experimental Investigation of the Energy Dissipation Efficiency of a Vortex Drop Shaft with a Spiral Inlet

Saeed Akbari Zade; Ehsan Fadaei-Kermani; Mahnaz Ghaeini-Hessaroeyeh

Volume 26, Autumn , September 2025, Pages 33-17

https://doi.org/10.22092/idser.2025.370674.1630

Abstract

Extended AbstractIntroductionUrban sewage collection systems in areas with rugged topography present significant hydraulicchallenges. Steep slopes and substantial elevation differences generate high kinetic energy in the flow.Without proper control, this excess energy leads to adverse consequences, including ... Read More Extended AbstractIntroductionUrban sewage collection systems in areas with rugged topography present significant hydraulicchallenges. Steep slopes and substantial elevation differences generate high kinetic energy in the flow.Without proper control, this excess energy leads to adverse consequences, including erosion and degradationof the channel bed and walls. Further issues may involve structural damage and vibrations induced by highenergyflow, the entrainment of large volumes of air due to free-falling sewage, and the potential for waterhammer in closed systems. To address these challenges, vortex drop structures have been introduced as anefficient engineering solution. These structures establish a controlled vortex flow pattern within a verticalshaft, thereby dissipating the incoming flow's excess energy in an effective and manageable manner.MethodologyIn the present study, a physical model of a vortex drop structure was constructed to investigate itshydraulic performance, including the spiral inlet and the shaft. Furthermore, since the structure's performancein flow energy dissipation is significantly influenced by the upstream and downstream hydraulic conditionsand geometry, the rate of flow energy dissipation by the structure was measured.A 1:10 scale physical model of the East Tehran Sewer Vortex Drop Structure was constructed in theHydraulic Structures Laboratory of Shahid Bahonar University of Kerman, Iran. The model comprises arectangular approach channel, a tangential vortex inlet, a drop shaft, an energy dissipator, and a rectangularoutlet conduit. In this study, a spiral inlet with different outlet diameters was employed. The inlet channel,with a rectangular cross-section, conveys the flow to the tangential inlet structure. This channel measures0.18 m in width (B) and 0.21 m in height. Downstream of the vortex drop structure, the flow exits via arectangular outlet conduit measuring 0.18 m in width and 0.24 m in height.The model begins with an initial reservoir; upon filling, water enters the structure through the inletchannel. The wall height of the inlet channel is 0.24 m. Four different flow rates were used in this experiment:10.67, 14.55, 19.40, and 25.22 liters per second, respectively.Results and DiscussionIn the present study, the flow behavior within different sections of the vortex drop structure, includingthe inlet channel, the spiral inlet structure, and the outlet channel (energy dissipator), was investigated.Subsequently, the influence of three parameters including: flow rate (Q), inlet structure diameter (d), and theratio of sump depth to shaft diameter (Hs/D) on the energy dissipation efficiency (EDE) was examined. Theeffect of these parameters was evaluated in three stages: first, each parameter was assessed individually, then in pairwise combinations, and finally all three parameters were evaluated together.The results indicate that flow rate had the greatest influence on EDE. The highest efficiency (92.79%) occurred at a flow rate of 10.67 L/s, while the lowest (88.93%) corresponded to 25.22 L/s. Consequently, EDE was found to decrease with increasing flow rate.The simultaneous effect of all three parameters (diameter, flow rate, and sump depth) on energy dissipation efficiency shows that, for a 12 cm diameter and a flow rate of 10.67 L/s, the highest efficiency of 94.59% corresponds to Hs/D=1. For the same diameter and a flow rate of 25.22 L/s, the highest efficiency is 88.92% for Hs/D=1. For a 16 cm diameter and a flow rate of 10.67 L/s, the highest efficiency is 94.08% for Hs/D=1. For this same diameter and a flow rate of 25.22 L/s, the highest efficiency is 90.35% for Hs/D=2.ConclusionsIn the present research, a physical model of a sewer vortex drop shaft with a spiral inlet was investigated in the Hydraulic Structures Laboratory at Shahid Bahonar University of Kerman. This study examined the effect of three parameters including discharge (Q), the diameter of the inlet structure (d) and the ratio of the depth of sump to the drop shaft diameter (HS/D) on energy dissipation efficiency (EDE). Separate analysis of the individual parameters revealed that the influence of flow discharge (Q) on EDE was greater than that of the other two parameters (diameter and sump depth ratio), accounting for 79.92% of the effect. The two-parameter analysis concerning the interaction of diameter and discharge on EDE showed that at a discharge of Q=10.67 L/s, the highest EDE (93.15%) was achieved with a 12 cm diameter. Furthermore, when the discharge increased to Q=25.22 L/s, the maximum EDE (89.25%) was recorded for the 16 cm diameter. Regarding the combined effect of diameter and sump depth ratio on EDE, the results indicated that for a 12 cm diameter, the peak EDE (92.21%) occurred when HS/D=1, meaning the sump depth was equal to the drop shaft diameter.The results of this study confirm that all three parameters—flow discharge, inlet diameter, and sump depth—affect the energy dissipation efficiency (EDE), with flow discharge exerting the greatest influence. Future work should investigate the effect of other geometric parameters of the spiral inlet, particularly the slope of the inlet channel bed and the slope of the inlet structure itself, on the EDE of vortex drop shafts.Keywords: Energy dissipation efficiency, Discharge, Vortex drop structure, Laboratory model, Spiral inlet.AcknowledgmentsThe authors would like to thank all participants of the present study, especially the civil engineering department of the Shahid Bahonar University of Kerman which made this research possible.Conflict of InterestThe authors declared no potential conflicts of interest concerning the research, authorship, and publication of this article.FundingThe authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and publication of this article .Data Availability StatementsData Availability Statement: All information and results are presented in the text of the article.Authors’ contributionAll authors contributed to the study conception and design. Material preparation, data collection and analysis were performed by all authors. The first draft of the manuscript was written by E. F.K. and all authors commented on previous versions of the manuscript (S. A.Z., E. F.K., and M. Gh.H.). The final revisions have been applied by E. F.K., and M. Gh.H. Moreover, all authors have read and approved the final manuscript.

Original Article Irrigation network management

Classification and Spatial-Temporal Monitoring of Groundwater Quality for Drinking, Agricultural, and Industrial Uses (Case Study: Qazvin Plain)

Shima Azadeh Ranjbar; Majid Kholghi; Afshin َAshrafzadeh

Volume 26, Autumn , September 2025, Pages 55-34

https://doi.org/10.22092/idser.2025.371470.1633

Abstract

Extended AbstractIntroductionIn countries such as Iran, where drinking water, agriculture, and industry heavily rely on groundwater resources, management and protection are fundamental priorities. Excessive extraction has caused severe decline in groundwater levels and water quality reduction. Given ... Read More Extended AbstractIntroductionIn countries such as Iran, where drinking water, agriculture, and industry heavily rely on groundwater resources, management and protection are fundamental priorities. Excessive extraction has caused severe decline in groundwater levels and water quality reduction. Given increasing population and surface water shortage, dependence on quality groundwater has intensified significantly.The Qazvin Plain, as a major agricultural and industrial hub, plays an effective role in regional food security and economic development. Agricultural and industrial activities have imposed increasing pressure on water resources. Although part of water demand is supplied through the Taleghan Dam and seasonal rivers, this plain has severe dependence on groundwater with increasing extraction, leading to level decline and serious quality challenges.The Qazvin Plain is located within 49°10' to 50°40' East longitude and 35°20' to 36°31' North latitude. The plain area is 5059.3 square kilometers with elevation ranging between 1131 and 2902 meters. With semi-arid climate, it receives average annual precipitation of 317 millimeters. With 250,000 hectares of agricultural land, the agricultural sector accounts for more than 85 percent of water consumption. The objective is to classify groundwater quality for agricultural, drinking, and industrial uses, and investigate spatial and temporal variations over a 20-year period from 2001 to 2021.MethodologyGroundwater quality data were obtained from Qazvin Regional Water Company. Water type and facies were determined using the Piper diagram. Qualitative classification for agricultural purposes was conducted according to Wilcox classification, for drinking according to Schoeller classification, and for industrial purposes using Langelier Saturation Index (LSI). The Wilcox method classifies water based on electrical conductivity (EC) and sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) into four classes: excellent, good, average, and unsuitable. Schoeller method classifies water into six classes based on total dissolved solids (TDS) and total hardness (TH). Langelier index categorizes water as corrosive (LSI<0), balanced (LSI=0), or scaling (LSI>0). Spatial and temporal zoning maps were prepared using Kriging interpolation in GIS at five-year intervals.Results and DiscussionPiper diagrams analysis over five periods (2001-2021) revealed continuous aquifer degradation. In 2001, most samples showed calcium-bicarbonate facies indicating fresh water. By 2006, samples shifted toward calcium-sulfate facies. In 2011, degradation accelerated with dramatic dispersion increase and sodium-chloride facies emergence indicating serious salinization. By 2016, critical condition became evident with high facies diversity. In 2021, crisis peaked with maximum dispersion, where calcium-bicarbonate facies appeared only in limited samples, and significant portions showed saline facies dominated by sodium-chloride and sodium-sulfate.For agricultural water quality, no sample was excellent quality. Good quality decreased from 25.25% in 2001 to 17.91% in 2021 (29% reduction). Average quality increased from 46.46% to 58.95%, and unsuitable samples fluctuated between 14.23% and 33.33%. Medium and unsuitable categories comprised 75 to 92 percent.For drinking water quality, about 70% of samples remained in good to average categories, but good quality decreased from 29% to 22%. Completely inappropriate category increased from zero to 2.74%. In total hardness, good quality declined from 39% to 24%, while acceptable water increased to 44%.For industrial water quality, significant changes occurred. Corrosive water decreased from 96.97% to 70.1%, while scaling water increased dramatically from 2.02% to 23.1%. Balanced water comprised only 1 to 6.7%. More than 93% falls into corrosive or scaling categories, requiring treatment before use.Spatial-temporal analysis revealed northern areas had best quality while southern areas faced worst quality, with degradation advancing from south to north. For agriculture, medium and unsuitable water increased from 75% to over 90%. For drinking, good quality decreased from 29-39% to 22-24%. For industry, over 93% are either corrosive or scaling.ConclusionsGroundwater resources show concerning degradation trends. Facies evolution from fresh to saline types, dramatic diversity increase, and significant reduction in suitable quality represent serious warnings.For agriculture, unsuitable water increased from 75% to over 90%, necessitating urgent strategies including extraction control, cropping pattern modification, and drainage systems development. For drinking, good quality decreased from 29-39% to 22-24%, with southern areas requiring advanced treatment. For industry, more than 93% are corrosive or scaling, requiring treatment.The spatial pattern indicates degradation advancing from south to north. The trend shows increasing salinity and hardness resulting from excessive extraction, reduced recharge, and likely saline water intrusion. This requires urgent actions including extraction control, artificial recharge enhancement, agricultural return flows treatment, and pollution prevention. Without fundamental measures, sustainability will be severely threatened.Keywords: Langelier index, Piper, Qazvin aquifer, Quality zoning, Schoeller, Wilcox.AcknowledgmentsThe authors wish to express their sincere gratitude to the Editor and the two anonymous reviewers for their insightful comments and constructive feedback, which significantly improved the quality of this manuscript. We also thank the Regional Water Company of Qazvin for providing the necessary data for this research.Conflict of InterestThe authors declared no potential conflicts of interest concerning the research, authorship, and publication of this article. Confirmation. FundingThe authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and publication of this article.Data Availability StatementsThe datasets generated and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.Authors’ contributionAll authors contributed equally to the conceptualization of the article and writing of the original and subsequent drafts. Sh. AR. handled the methodology, formal analysis, investigation, data curation, visualization, and initial draft preparation. A.A. and M. Kh. provided supervision and validation for the study. Resources were provided by M. Kh., A. A., and M. Kh. shared responsibility for the final review and editing of the manuscript. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

A Review of Water Consumption Management Indicators of different Crops in Iran

Volume 25, Issue 94 , June 2024, , Pages 1-16

https://doi.org/10.22092/idser.2024.364605.1569

Abstract

Extended AbstractIntroduction In terms of water consumption in different sectors, in Iran as in other countries, a significant part of surface and groundwater resources is used in agricultural sector. For the amount of water consumed in Iran's agricultural sector, different numbers have been reported ... Read More Extended AbstractIntroduction In terms of water consumption in different sectors, in Iran as in other countries, a significant part of surface and groundwater resources is used in agricultural sector. For the amount of water consumed in Iran's agricultural sector, different numbers have been reported in various sources. In the past three decades, water consumption in agricultural sector in various sources and methods has been reported between 44 and 86 billion cubic meters (Movaheddanesh, 1994; Ghodratnema, 1998; Mohammad-Vali-Samani, 2005; Nasseri et al., 2017; 2018). The physical water productivity is also one of the important indicators of irrigation management, which is determined by using the amount of product produced per unit of applied irrigation water. Abbasi et al. (2017) estimated and analyzed water productivity values in Iran for different years. They estimated the values of water productivity varying from 0.94 to 1.29 kg/m3 and average being 1.07 kg/m3. Abbasi et al. (2019) also showed that water productivity index in Iran had an upward trend with a slope of 0.045 kg per year. It varied from 1.0 kg/m3 in 2008 to about 1.45 kg/m3 in 2017. Past researches regarding the estimation of water consumption in agricultural sector have been reported with estimation methods such as water balance method, which was not accurate and was associated with errors. On the other hand, the figures presented for the amount of water consumed in agricultural sector are very different and there are doubts about their accuracy. Despite the importance of the issue, accurate information on the amount of irrigation water for agricultural crops in different regions of Iran is not available and this issue has always been one of the main concerns of the water industry managers and planners. Therefore, carrying out a research work that leads to more accurate numbers about the amount of applied irrigation water for different crops, can be of great help to the decision-making of officials related to water and agriculture. The main goal of this article is a comprehensive evaluation of water management indicators in agricultural sector (including the water productivity and applied irrigation water for different crops). MethodologyField measurements including applied irrigation water and crop yield were carried out for at least one cropping season in the production hubs of each crop. Twelve crops included 12 wheat, rice, barley, fodder corn, alfalfa, sugar beet, sugar cane, beans, sunflower, cotton, rapeseed, and soybean, 17 garden crops included saffron, apple, olive, orange, tangerine, peach, nectarine, plum, lemon, fig, grape, date, pomegranate, walnut, almond, pistachio, and cherry and 6 vegetable and summer crops were tomato, watermelon, potato, cucumber, melon, and onion. These crops covered more than 85% of the cultivated area and irrigated lands in different provinces. For each crop, applied irrigation water was measured in a crop season and the yield for one year or the average of two years, but for garden plants, due to climate changes and frost damages, the average yield of 1-3 years was determined and used in the analysis. Physical water productivity of irrigation water from the ratio of crop yield to applied irrigation water and water productivity from the ratio of crop yield to water (total volume of irrigation water and effective precipitation) and gross income per unit of applied irrigation water was calculated from the product of crop yield in the sales price divided by the applied irrigation water. In this research, the cluster analysis model was used to determine the homogeneous crops. Results and DiscussionThe results showed that applied irrigation water for different crops varied from 3984 for rapeseed to 32500 cubic meters per hectare for sugarcane. So that the weighted average applied irrigation water of 35 studied crops was determined to be 8032 cubic meters per hectare. This index was 9162, 7669 and 7247 cubic meters per hectare for garden, agricultural, vegetable and summer crops, respectively. Also, the total applied water used for the 35 studied crops was estimated at 61.7 billion cubic meters and the total irrigation water for other crops that were not evaluated in this research was estimated at 9.4 billion cubic meters. The total water used in irrigated crops was estimated at 71 billion cubic meters, which was about 70% of the total renewable water in Iran. The weighted average of irrigation water productivity and water productivity of the studied crops was determined as 1.9 and 1.5 kg/m3, respectively. Saffron and pistachio provided the highest gross income per unit of irrigation water and sugarcane, soybean, barley, fodder corn, wheat and alfalfa had the lowest values. ConclusionsThe results of this research provided valuable information for managers and decision makers in different provinces of Iran.

The Feasibility of Using New Technologies in the Modification and Reconstruction of Water Transmission Channels During Operation (Case Study: The Main Channel of Moghan Irrigation Network- Iran)

Volume 24, Issue 91 , November 2023, , Pages 22-49

https://doi.org/10.22092/idser.2023.362797.1548

Abstract

Extended Abstract Introuction This study aims to examine building modern irrigation networks to provide the possibility of productivity of water and soil resources by creating facilities, in which the optimal technical principles and criteria of hydraulic and economic design ... Read More Extended Abstract Introuction This study aims to examine building modern irrigation networks to provide the possibility of productivity of water and soil resources by creating facilities, in which the optimal technical principles and criteria of hydraulic and economic design are observed. In this regard, the main water transfer channel plays a vital and exceptional role in supplying the required water for agricultural lands covered by the network and for the prosperity of the regional and national agricultural economy. Covering the water transmission channels in operation is always one of the numerous problems and problems of operation and maintenance of large irrigation networks in the world. In Iran, due to the major issues and problems of exploitation in the lands covered by modern networks, such as land drainage due to water leakage from the bodies of earthen canals, concrete covering of canals has always been considered to prevent water wastage, and it is on the agenda. The deputy of water resources affairs of the Ministry of Energy and regional water companies was established. The main canal of the South Moghan irrigation network in Iran with a transfer capacity of 80 cubic meters per second, the main channel of Upper Garabagh with a capacity of 110 cubic meters per second and the main water transfer channel of Upper Shirvan with a capacity of 85 cubic meters per second in the Republic of Azerbaijan are among them. Material and Methods The withdrawal of water needed by the Moghan irrigation and drainage network from the Aras River is directed through the Mil and Moghan diversion dam before entering the main channel to a sediment catchment basin to trap suspended sediments in it. This calm sediment collection pond with a maximum water intake of 95 cubic meters per second has four rectangular units and each unit consists of three galleries, 15 cubic meters of which are returned to the river after washing, and the rest enters the main channel. In the current state, due to the reduction of vegetation in the middle basin of the Aras River at a distance of 260 km from the Aras Reservoir Dam upstream of the Mil and Moghan Diversion Dam and the subsequent increase in the concentration of suspended load in the Aras River, the trapping efficiency of the suspended load in the sedimentation basin has decreased to its minimum value. For this reason, sediments exceeding the permissible limit of 18 to 25 g/L enter the water transfer channel. Even though more than 45 years of the useful life of the network have passed, covering operations of the main channel with materials, such as impermeable soil (compaction of bed soil, cover with a thin compacted layer of clay, cover with bentonite) or concrete cover to prevent washing water and reduce water loss from the earthen body of the main channel has happened very little and locally. Results and Discussion Considering the necessity of realizing the research objectives, the feasibility of using the proposed method to carry out the executive operations of improvement, reconstruction, and concrete covering of the soil section of the canal, without interrupting the water flow in the main water transmission channel of South Moghan from its kilometer 1 to 11, was conducted (Hasanpour and Tabatabai, 2010). The method of constructing a temporary diverting channel along the main channel by constructing earthen dikes in the cross-section of the main channel to cut off the water flow within the scope of operational operations of the enclosed sections between the dikes and directing the required water flow by creating a diverting section in the side wall of the channel upstream of the earthen dike into the temporary diversion channel and re-directing the water flow through the end earthen dyke downstream into the main channel for the implementation of repair and reconstruction operations and concrete coating in several operating intervals of the earth section of the channel without interrupting the water flow by spending exorbitant costs of the construction operation of the temporary diversion channel and the concrete cover of the main channel were done. Therefore, due to the imposition of excessive and unconventional financial burden in the method of using a temporary diversion channel on the implementation of the main channel modification and reconstruction plan, to reduce the excessive conventional costs, the new method of "wall structure of mobile separating blades" as a solution suitable and cost-effective for its use and application in the repair and reconstruction of the canal was suggested. The regional water company also promised to assist in the application and use of the new technology proposed to operate the project in the main Moghan canal, based on the urgent need and necessity of the issue. In this method, the minimum cost is 2.7 times lower than the cost of constructing a diversion channel per unit length (1 km). Also, in carrying out dredging operations, cleaning and smoothing the section of the main canal of southern Moghan, similar to the long-boom excavator, which was invented by Professor Telman Hajief to carry out dredging operations in special conditions and channels with large sections, using modern technology, was used. (Hashmi-Shadheni et al., 2016) Conclusions Since the well-known methods and proposals are accompanied by defects even after completion, therefore a new effective method was developed under the title of "mobile separating blade wall method", which is the mechanism of operationalizing the technical and technological parameters of its construction widely. It was investigated and researched. First, the operation of the mobile separating blade wall structure in laboratory conditions was investigated experimentally. The division of the main channel sections in the method of the mobile separating blade wall structure, drying the enclosed operation field, carrying out soil operations, concreting, and its technological technology was presented, and determined, that in this method, carrying out the operation of covering the sections of the water transmission channel using concrete panels Arme will be ready, easier and very affordable. Also, the calculation of the technical and economic comparison indicators of the construction, along with the transfer of the required costs downstream with different methods showed that the mobile dividing wall method is very suitable and economical in terms of technical, technological, and economic aspects in the major repairs and reconstruction of the main channels. The proposed method is a new technique that for its application in production, there will be an urgent need to conduct practical research in nature. Therefore, it is suggested that the presented method be conducted and evaluated for other networks so that all the country's networks can be improved and modified more cost-effectively.

Evaluation of environmental performance of mole drain on rice cultivation in paddy fields

Volume 24, Issue 92 , March 2024, , Pages 131-106

https://doi.org/10.22092/idser.2024.365355.1575

Abstract

Extended Abstract Introduction It is possible to effectively control water in paddy fields, prevent flooding problems, and create optimal conditions for the growth of agricultural products with simultaneous and correct management of irrigation and drainage. Due to the high initial cost of the construction ... Read More Extended Abstract Introduction It is possible to effectively control water in paddy fields, prevent flooding problems, and create optimal conditions for the growth of agricultural products with simultaneous and correct management of irrigation and drainage. Due to the high initial cost of the construction of subsurface drainage, Mole drainage is a suitable and more economical alternative in clay soils. Constructing the mole drain at a critical depth and passing the water through the cracks, improves the soil conditions and removes excess water from the soil surface. Mulqueen (1985), reported that gravel mole drain is a suitable alternative to traditional mole drain. Considering the limited studies in the field of mole drainage, the purpose of this study is to evaluate the performance of low-cost mole drainage for draining excess water from paddy fields and its environmental effects. Therefore, the effect of traditional mole and gravel mole drain on drainage water quality and control of the water table of paddy fields in the mid and end of rice season was investigated. Materials and Methods The experiment was conducted in the agricultural year of 2022-2023 in the research farm of the Faculty of Agricultural Sciences, University of Guilan (IRAN). The split-plot experiment was implemented in a randomized complete block design in three replications under the main drainage treatment on two levels: (1) Traditional mole drain (without gravel) and (2) Gravel mole drain and the sub-treatment of irrigation method in two levels: (1) Flood irrigation and (2) Alternative irrigation. In the stages of tillering and harvesting, mid and end season drainage were done respectively. During the drainage period, the water table was measured with a piezometer. By sampling the drainage water, its quality parameters including acidity, electrical conductivity, nitrate, nitrite, phosphate, sulfate, chloride, total suspended and dissolved solids, sodium, calcium, magnesium, and ammonium were measured. The results of the investigated treatments were statistically analyzed using SAS software. Results and Discussion With the start of mid season drainage, after one day, the water table reached the middle of the soil profile and more than half of the root development depth was in anaerobic conditions. Five days after the drainage in the traditional mole drain, the depth of root development was in aerobic conditions. The highest value in average acidity and sodium adsorption ratio was 6.99 and 4.65 meq/l respectively in mid season in gravel mole drain and flood irrigation. The highest concentration of ammonium and nitrate in mid season drainage was 0.20 and 0.21 mg/l, respectively, and the highest average electrical conductivity and total dissolved solids at the end season were 3845 µS/cm and 2475 mg/l, respectively, in traditional mole drain and flood irrigation. In mid and end season drainage, the amount of total suspended solids in the mole drain with gravel was 60% and 88% higher than the traditional mole drain, respectively. The highest concentration of nitrite was obtained in the gravel mole drain and flood irrigation with a value of 6.75 mg/l during mid season drainage. The average concentration of phosphate and sulfate in gravel mole drain compared to the traditional mole in mid and end season decreased by 25 and 30%, respectively, and sulfate by 3 and 5.5%. Also, the average concentration of chloride in the gravel mole drain was lower than the traditional one. Conclusion The comparison of results indicated that the average amounts of electrical conductivity, total dissolved solids, sodium adsorption ratio, sodium, ammonium, phosphate, sulfate, and chloride of drainage water in mid and end season were lower in gravel mole drain than that in traditional one. The results of statistical analysis showed that the treatment of drainage, irrigation, and time at the level of one and five percent were effective on most of the parameters, while the values of electrical conductivity, total dissolved solids, and nitrite of the drainage water showed that their difference was not significant. The traditional mole drain was more successful in controlling the water table. A comparison of the quality parameters of drainage water with the standard of the Iranian Environmental Protection Organization for the discharge of drainage water into surface waters showed that most of the parameters, except for ammonium and total suspended solids, were within the permissible limits.

Determination of irrigation management indicators in peach and nectarine production in Iran

Volume 24, Issue 91 , November 2023, , Pages 50-69

https://doi.org/10.22092/idser.2023.363367.1556

Abstract

Extended AbstractProviding food security in scarcity conditions of water resources requires macro-planning for the supply, allocation and water consumption in different sections such as agricultural section. In Iran, like in other countries of the world, most fresh water resources are consumed in the ... Read More Extended AbstractProviding food security in scarcity conditions of water resources requires macro-planning for the supply, allocation and water consumption in different sections such as agricultural section. In Iran, like in other countries of the world, most fresh water resources are consumed in the agricultural sector. In this situation, one of the effective and practical solutions is the optimal use of irrigation water in the agricultural sector, which consumes the most water. The most basic component for optimal irrigation water management in Iran is the awareness of applied water in the production of various agricultural products under the farmers’ management conditions. Therefore, this study was conducted with the aim of appraising irrigation water management indicators such as seasonal applied water, yield , and irrigation water productivity, total water productivity (irrigation water plus plus effective rainfall ) in Azarbayjan Sharghi, Azarbayjan Gharbi, Ardabil, Alborz, Tehran, Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari, Fars, Qazvin, Markazi, Hamedan, Golastan and Mazandaran provinces as peach and nectarine production hubs in Iran.MethodologyIn this study, a field survey was conducted to measure applied irrigation water and yield under the gardeners’ management in peach and nectarine production hubs. This indicators was measured in 195 gardenes in Azarbayjan Sharghi, Azarbayjan Gharbi, Ardabil, Alborz, Tehran, Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari, Fars, Qazvin, Markazi, Hamedan, Golastan and Mazandaran provinces with different conditions of climates, irrigation methods (surface and drip), salinity of irrigation water and soil; and different peach and nectarine cultivars during growing season 2018-2019. To measuring irrigation water volume, after determining the inflow of water to the garden by carefully monitoring the garden irrigation time and measuring the irrigated area, the volume of irrigation water applied by peach and nectarine trees in each garden was measured. Crop yield was obtained in three consecutive years and their mean was used in the analysis. Irrigation water productivity (WPIrr) and total water productivity (WPIrr+pe) were calcucated as the ratio of yield to applied water and irrigation water plus effective rainfall, respectively. Then, the effect of modern irrigation methods (surface drip irrigation) on applied water, WPIrr and WPIrr+pe were investigated in the study areas. Analysis of variance was used to investigate the possible difference between yield, applied water and WP among the hubs. Data adequacy was assessed by using the method provided by Sarmad et al. (2001).Results and DiscussionThe results showed that the difference between average volume of water applied by gardeners, yield, WPIrr and WPIrr+pe, in the studied sites were significant at 5% probability level. The average amount of applied water by gardeners in Azarbayjan Sharghi, Azarbayjan Gharbi, Ardabil, Alborz, Tehran, Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari, Fars, Qazvin, Markazi, Hamedan, Golastan and Mazandaran provinces was 8617, 7178, 8140, 8137, 8568, 7763, 8814, 8675, 10806, 6428, 2842 and 2012 m3/ha, respectively, and the average was 6734m3/ha. The yield of peach and nectarine varied from 10 to 50 tons/ha with an average of 20 tons/ha. Irrigation water productivity (WPIrr) varied from 1.6 to 8.6 and its average was 3.06 kg/m3. The average WPIrr+pe for peach and nectarine was 2.44 kg/m3. The results showed that the average applied water for peach and nectarine orchards in the study areas except for Golestan and Mazandaran provinces for surface and drip irrigation methods were 9325 and 7098 m3/ha, respectively, (p<1%). Therefore, in drip irrigation method, applied water was 25% less and WPIrr was 34% higher. ConclusionsIn general, the results of this study provide useful information on irrigation water management indicators in peach and nectarine production to managers and water decision makers within Iran. Accordingly, in order to reduce the volume of irrigation water and improve peach and nectarine water productivity, it is recommended to use drip irrigation method in suitable climatic conditions where irrigation water is of good quality and the technical criteria of design, implementation, operation, and economic considerations are met. Also, training and application methods to improve the performance of surface irrigation to reduce evaporation and applied irrigation water is recommended.

Optimization Distance and Depth of laterals in Subsurface Drip Irrigation Systems (SDI) alfalfa

Volume 24, Issue 92 , March 2024, , Pages 105-88

https://doi.org/10.22092/idser.2024.365036.1574

Abstract

Extended AbstractIntroductionAlfalfa is irrigated by drip, strip, Furrow and rain irrigation methods. Surface irrigation methods are unjustifiable and not economical due to the low potential of irrigation efficiency in dry areas. Rain irrigation methods cannot be justified in hot and dry areas due to ... Read More Extended AbstractIntroductionAlfalfa is irrigated by drip, strip, Furrow and rain irrigation methods. Surface irrigation methods are unjustifiable and not economical due to the low potential of irrigation efficiency in dry areas. Rain irrigation methods cannot be justified in hot and dry areas due to high evaporation and high water requirement of alfalfa. Alfalfa is a plant whose leaves are sensitive to burns caused by poor quality water as a result of water spraying in the rain irrigation method (Hengeller, 1995). Micro irrigation methods (surface and subsurface drip) are among the alternative methods of rain methods. The subsurface drip irrigation method has not been developed in Iran due to the existence of ambiguities and some dark and unclear points regarding its efficiency for crops (clogged outlets, salt accumulation, and risk of blockage of pipes by roots). These concerns require that before any development of subsurface drip irrigation method for different crops, necessary researches should be done in this field. Therefore, conducting any research on the efficiency of this method for alfalfa, which is a valuable fodder plant but requires a lot of water, seems necessary. This research was conducted with the aim of investigating the effect of subsurface drip irrigation method on alfalfa yield, the amount of water consumed and determining the appropriate distances and depths for sub-pipes. Methodology In order to investigate the effect of installation depth and distance of irrigation strips (laterals) in subsurface drip irrigation method on yield and water use efficiency in alfalfa cultivation, a study was conducted for two years on the farm of Damghan Agricultural Research Station. The design was implemented in the form of split strips based on randomized complete blocks with two factors and three replications. Factors included: 1- Distance of irrigation strips from each other in three levels (80, 100 and 120 cm) 2- Depth of installation of irrigation strips in two levels (30 and 45 cm below the soil surface). Depth of strips installation was considered as the main factor and distances as the sub-factor. The length of each experimental plot was 60 m and the width of the plots for the distances of 80, 100 and 120 cm were selected as 4, 5 and 6 m, respectively. Strips irrigation with a with a diameter of 20 mm with a discharge of 1.6 (lit/hr) and a distance of 60 cm for each dropper were selected. After preparing the ground and sowing the seeds, the subsurface irrigation pipes were placed (according to the treatments) with using the machine. Irrigation water was calculated by Penman-Monteith method and was given to the plant with an irrigation cycle of 4 days.Results and DiscussionThe results showed that the effect of pipe spacing on product yield (dry matter) and water use efficiency was significant, but the effect of pipe installation depth on yield and water use efficiency was not significant. The interaction effect of distance and depth of tapes irrigation on crop yield and water use efficiency was significant. There was no significant difference between crop yield in treatments with lateral distance of 80 and 100 cm. With increasing lateral distance from 80 to 120 cm, crop yield decreased sharply. Due to the yield of treatments and the cost of subsurface drip irrigation, the treatment of lateral distance of 100 and depth of 45 cm was suggested as the superior treatment. Conclusions The subsurface drip irrigation method for perennial crops is one of the efficient and appropriate methods. This method has a much higher efficiency than other irrigation methods due to the reduction of evaporation losses and the increase of irrigation efficiency especially in arid and semi-arid areas. The non-interference of irrigation in this method with the traffic of agricultural machines (especially during harvest) increases the ability and functionality of this method. But one of the problems of this method is the damage of rodents to the sub-pipes under the soil surface, which makes it difficult to determine the places of damage and repair them. Based on the results of this research, to prevent the damage of rodents, it is recommended to fight against these rodents and also to increase the installation depth of secondary pipes up to 50 cm. Clogging of droppers caused by poor filtration performance and penetration into and around the pipes are other problems of this method. To avoid these problems, it is recommended to inject acid and herbicide regularly into the irrigation system.

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