Original Article
Irrigation network management
Afshin َAshrafzadeh; Jaber Salehpour Laghani
Abstract
Introduction The management of treated wastewater is a critical issue in addressing water scarcity and ensuring environmental sustainability, particularly in regions like Guilan Province, Iran, where agricultural, urban, and industrial activities strain water resources. ...
Read More
Introduction The management of treated wastewater is a critical issue in addressing water scarcity and ensuring environmental sustainability, particularly in regions like Guilan Province, Iran, where agricultural, urban, and industrial activities strain water resources. This study aims to investigate regional preferences for pricing methods of treated wastewater, cost-based, market-based, subsidized, and environmental, in various parts of Guilan, characterized by differing environmental priorities. The research addresses the problem of aligning pricing strategies with local needs to enhance sustainable wastewater reuse. Existing literature highlights the importance of wastewater reuse for agriculture and environmental protection (Areosa et al., 2024; Hajjar et al., 2025) and the role of pricing in resource management (Beecher & Gould, 2018; Fagundes & Marques, 2023). However, studies focusing on regional variations in pricing preferences, especially in Iran, remain limited (Deh-Haghi et al., 2020; Zafari Koloukhi et al., 2021). This study employs a mixed-methods approach, combining quantitative (Kruskal-Wallis test, Random Forest) and qualitative (thematic analysis, conceptual network) techniques to analyse data from 55 stakeholders across four regions with varying environmental priorities. The main results reveal distinct regional preferences, with subsidized and environmental methods favoured in high-priority areas and cost-based and market-based methods in lower-priority regions, underscoring the need for tailored pricing policies. MethodologyThe research was conducted in Guilan Province, a key agricultural region in northern of Iran, known for its humid climate and sensitive ecosystems like the Anzali International Lagoon. The province was divided into four categories based on environmental priority: very high (e.g., Rasht, Anzali), high (e.g., Someh Sara), medium (e.g., Lahijan), and low (e.g., Khomam). Data were collected from 55 stakeholders, including farmers, experts in water and environmental issues, and representatives of local institutions, using a structured questionnaire. The questionnaire comprised demographic details, 20 Likert-scale questions assessing the four pricing methods, choice scenarios, and open-ended questions for qualitative insights. Quantitative analysis included descriptive statistics, Cronbach’s alpha for reliability, Kruskal-Wallis tests for inter-regional differences, and Random Forest modeling to identify influential factors. Qualitative analysis involved thematic analysis, keyword frequency counts, and conceptual network mapping using Python (version 3.8) and libraries like Pandas, Scikit-learn, and NetworkX. The research questions focused on identifying preferred pricing methods, their influencing factors, and qualitative explanations of these preferences. The mixed-methods approach was chosen to capture both statistical trends and nuanced stakeholder perspectives, ensuring relevance to both theoretical frameworks (e.g., sustainable resource pricing) and practical policy design. Results and DiscussionThe findings indicate significant regional variation in pricing preferences. In very high-priority areas (e.g., Rasht), the subsidized method (mean score 4.73, 57.14% preference) and environmental method (mean 4.42, 28.57%) were most favored, reflecting the urgent need for government support and environmental protection amid severe pollution (e.g., Anzali Lagoon). In high-priority areas (e.g., Someh Sara), the subsidized method (mean 4.06) led, with cost-based (mean 3.76) and market-based (mean 3.57) methods also notable, suggesting a balance between affordability and economic considerations. Medium-priority areas (e.g., Lahijan) preferred the market-based method (mean 3.93, 64.29%), driven by high agricultural demand for wastewater, while low-priority areas (e.g., Khomam) favored the cost-based method (mean 3.93, 37.50%), emphasizing financial transparency. Kruskal-Wallis tests confirmed significant differences for subsidized (p=0.001) and environmental (p=0.001) methods across regions, but not for cost-based (p=0.206) or market-based (p=0.323) methods. Random Forest analysis identified the environmental method as the most influential (importance 0.284), followed by market-based (0.261), subsidized (0.228), and cost-based (0.226). Qualitative analysis revealed dominant themes: subsidized and environmental concerns in high-priority areas, market-based in medium-priority, and cost-based in low-priority areas. A conceptual network showed strong links between subsidized and environmental methods (weight 18), reflecting stakeholder priorities. These results align with studies emphasizing economic and environmental factors in wastewater pricing (Deh-Haghi et al., 2020; Obaideen et al., 2022) but offer novel insights into regional specificity. ConclusionsThe study concludes that pricing preferences for treated wastewater in Guilan Province are closely tied to regional environmental priorities. Subsidized and environmental methods dominate in areas with severe pollution, while market-based and cost-based methods suit regions with stable water resources or lower pollution. Limitations include a modest sample size (55 stakeholders) and cross-sectional data, which may not capture long-term trends. The findings suggest that pricing policies must be region-specific to balance economic viability and environmental sustainability. Theoretical implications include reinforcing the role of context in resource pricing models, while practical implications involve guiding policymakers to prioritize subsidies in high-priority areas and market mechanisms in agricultural hubs. Future research should explore cost-benefit analyses and longitudinal impacts of pricing strategies. AcknowledgementHereby, we would like to express our sincere gratitude to the stakeholders in Guilan Province for their participation in completing the questionnaires. We also appreciate the provincial organizations for providing access to the data used in this study. Our heartfelt thanks go to the Editor-in-Chief and esteemed reviewers whose valuable comments greatly contributed to enhancing the quality of this article.
Original Article
Hydraulic
Ebrahim Valizadegan; Farzad Jalili
Abstract
Introduction
Despite the development and construction of advanced equipment for measuring discharge in canals, sharp crested weirs are always used in irrigation and water supply networks due to their simplicity in operation and low cost. Extensive research has been done to obtain the discharge calculation ...
Read More
Introduction
Despite the development and construction of advanced equipment for measuring discharge in canals, sharp crested weirs are always used in irrigation and water supply networks due to their simplicity in operation and low cost. Extensive research has been done to obtain the discharge calculation relationship in all types of sharp crested weirs. To increase the efficiency and accuracy of weirs, researchers have performed various researches by applying various changes in the geometry of sharp crested weirs, such as Borghei et al. 2003, Igathinathane et al. 2007, Nicosia et al. 2019, Vatankhah and Khamisabadi 2019, Diwedar et al. 2022, Zeinivand et al. 2024 and other researches. Flow calculation relationships using triangular sharp crested weirs have been developed for the special conditions of installing these weirs, one of these conditions is the location of the vertex of the weir at a certain height from the bottom of the canal (P<0). In this research, a 90 degree triangular sharp crested weir was installed in the canal so that the vertex of the weir be the same level with the bottom of the canal in the central axis (P=0). To find the flow calculation relationship, several experiments were carried out in free and submerged conditions in 2 canals with different floor width.
Methodology
The modified head-discharge equation for triangular sharp crested weir proposed by Kindsvater and Carter (1957) (Eq. 1) was the basis for conducting experiments and arriving at the discharge calculation relationships in free flow conditions.
(1)
(2)
In the above equations, Q = flow rate, He = effective height of water on vertex of the weir, g = acceleration of gravity, q = angle of the weir vertex, Cd = discharge coefficient, which is affected by the geometry of the weir, H = water height on the vertex of weir and Kh = a quantity that depends on the characteristics of the fluid and the angle of the vertex of weir, and its value is presented in a graph for water at a temperature of 5 to 30 degrees Celsius. In submerged flow conditions, following functional equations were based for conducting experiments and arriving at the discharge calculation equations.
(3)
(4)
Where H1 and H2 = flow depth in the upstream and downstream of the weir respectively, Qs = submerged flow rate, Qf = free flow rate per H1.
10 experiments in free flow and 77 experiments in submerged flow conditions conducted in a flume with a length of 3, width of 0.2 and height of 0.2 meters with an adjustable floor slope in the hydraulic laboratory. To verify the obtained results, all the experiments were repeated again in another flume with a floor width of 25 cm.
Results and Discussion
Based on equation 1 and experiments in the canal with floor width of 20 cm, the variation of the measured flow (Q) with the theoretical flow (Qtheo.) is shown in Figure 1-a. In order to check the accuracy of the obtained graph and equation, all the experiments were repeated by installing another 90o triangular sharp crested weir in another flume (with a floor width of 25 cm). Based on the these experiments (validation tests), the value of Cd coefficients were obtained as 0.6602 (Fig.1-b), same as fig. 1-a, (Fig.1-b).
(a) (b)
Fig. 1- variation of the measured flow (Q) with the theoretical flow (Qtheo.), a, in canal with floor width of 20 cm b, in canal with floor width of 25cm
Also based on Eq. 3 and 4, the following equations are obtained to discharge calculation under the submerged flow conditions.
(5)
(6)
Conclusions
In this research, a 90 degree triangular sharp crested weir was installed in the flume so that the vertex of the weir be the same level with the bottom of the channel in the central axis. After conducting several tests in the canal with a floor width of 20 cm, the relationships for calculating the discharge under free and submerged flow conditions were obtained based on dimensional analysis and the general relationship for calculating the discharge in triangular sharp crested weirs. In order to check the accuracy of the obtained relationships and verify them, experiments were carried out in another laboratory channel with a floor width of 25 cm (both in free flow and submerged flow conditions). The accuracy of the obtained relationships was evaluated using statistical functions of mean absolute value of relative error (MARE) and root mean square error (RMSE) for both channels. Results indicate the high accuracy of discharge calculation relationships both in free flow and submerged flow conditions. Based on the obtained results,both in free flow and submerged flow conditions, the flow permeability of triangular sharp crested weirs with P=0 is higher than weirs with P>0.
Original Article
Pressurized Irrigation Systems
Abolghasem Haghayeghi; Majid Keramati; Ardalan Zolfagharan
Abstract
Introduction Water, as a vital and limited resource in agriculture, plays a decisive role in crop production. With the growing population and water resource constraints, optimizing water use in agriculture has become a major challenge. The use of modern technologies ...
Read More
Introduction Water, as a vital and limited resource in agriculture, plays a decisive role in crop production. With the growing population and water resource constraints, optimizing water use in agriculture has become a major challenge. The use of modern technologies and real-time meteorological data can improve irrigation management and enhance water productivity. In recent years, efforts have been made to develop irrigation systems based on meteorological data. These systems use information such as temperature, humidity, precipitation, and evapotranspiration to estimate crop water requirements more accurately. However, many of these systems are still in the experimental and developmental stages, requiring field evaluations to assess their performance and efficiency. This study aimed to evaluate an intelligent irrigation planning system for wheat cultivation in the Mashhad region using real-time meteorological data. Methodology The study was conducted over two years in the Mashhad region, focusing on wheat cultivation. The irrigation treatments included: (1) irrigation based on real-time meteorological data from the intelligent system, (2) irrigation supplying 80% of the water volume used in the first treatment, and (3) irrigation supplying 120% of the water volume used in the first treatment. Water productivity was calculated based on irrigation volume and effective rainfall. A paired T-test was used to compare the treatments. Data on crop yield, water consumption, and water productivity were collected and analyzed. Results and Discussion The results showed that wheat yield in the treatment based on the intelligent system increased compared to the average yield in Mashhad farms. However, this treatment did not show an advantage in reducing water consumption, as it used more water than the regional average. Water productivity in this treatment was also not superior to the average wheat farms in the region. The intelligent system estimated water requirements to be more than double those calculated using data from the Mashhad meteorological station. In terms of usability, the system was simple and user-friendly for experts but required further optimization for farmers with limited technical knowledge.In the first year, surface irrigation showed that the 80% treatment had a significantly lower yield (4890 kg/ha) compared to the intelligent system (6600 kg/ha). The 120% treatment (6285 kg/ha) did not differ significantly from the intelligent system. In drip irrigation, the 120% treatment had the highest yield (6345 kg/ha), but it was not significantly different from the intelligent system (6170 kg/ha). In the second year, a 60% treatment was added. Surface irrigation showed that the 80% treatment (3550 kg/ha) had a significantly lower yield than the intelligent system (4680 kg/ha), while the 60% treatment (4600 kg/ha) did not differ significantly. The 120% treatment (6000 kg/ha) showed a significant difference compared to the intelligent system.Water consumption in the first year for surface irrigation was highest in the intelligent system (100% treatment), while the 80% and 120% treatments used 67% and 90% of this volume, respectively. In drip irrigation, the 100% treatment used the most water (4560 m³/ha), while the 80% and 120% treatments used 2840 and 4180 m³/ha, respectively. Water productivity in surface irrigation was highest in the 120% treatment (0.723 kg/m³), while in drip irrigation, the 80% treatment had the highest productivity (1.63 kg/m³).The intelligent system overestimated water requirements compared to data from the Mashhad meteorological station, primarily due to differences in minimum and maximum temperatures, relative humidity, and sunshine hours. The system's performance was rated as good for maximum temperature, moderate for relative humidity, and poor for minimum temperature and sunshine hours. Conclusion The intelligent irrigation scheduling system showed potential for improving wheat yield but did not reduce water consumption or enhance water productivity significantly. The system's overestimation of water requirements highlights the need for algorithmic improvements. While the system was user-friendly for experts, it requires further optimization for farmers with limited technical knowledge. This study serves as a preliminary step toward developing more efficient irrigation systems based on real-time meteorological data.
Original Article
Irrigation network management
Somayeh Emami; Hossein Dehghanisanij; Hojjat Emami
Abstract
Introduction In arid and semi-arid regions, pressures from climate change, including increasing temperatures, decreasing precipitation, and severe seasonal fluctuations, along with institutional constraints and weaknesses in resource management, have created fundamental challenges for farmers and hindered ...
Read More
Introduction In arid and semi-arid regions, pressures from climate change, including increasing temperatures, decreasing precipitation, and severe seasonal fluctuations, along with institutional constraints and weaknesses in resource management, have created fundamental challenges for farmers and hindered the realization of sustainable agriculture. The Lake Urmia basin, one of the most sensitive aquatic ecosystems in the country, provides a prime example of such critical conditions due to the significant decrease in water levels, increased salinity, and decline in the quality of water resources, which have resulted in widespread economic, social, and environmental consequences for local communities. Water scarcity not only reflects physical resource limitations but also generates complex interactions among economic, social, institutional, and environmental factors, directly influencing farmers' decision-making, irrigation technology choices, and the effectiveness of water resource management policies. In this context, socio-institutional resilience is a multidimensional and decisive factor, encompassing household economic capacities, flexibility and adaptability of agricultural technologies, active and stable social networks, and organizational and institutional skills, all of which can enhance the sustainability of agricultural systems in the face of environmental pressures and economic instabilities. However, previous studies have mostly analyzed economic, individual, or social indicators separately and have not comprehensively examined the complex interactions among individual, social, technological, and environmental factors. As a result, the ability to predict the agricultural system's response to various policies and climate shocks has been limited. Moreover, an integrated framework for optimal water resource management and for enhancing farmers' resilience has not yet been provided.MethodologyThis study was conducted using a mixed qualitative and quantitative approach combined with agent-based modeling (ABM) to accurately represent the complex interactions between farmers, social-institutional networks, and environmental pressures in the Miandoab Plain, south of Lake Urmia. The study population included 50 farmers, 10 agricultural Jihad experts, and 10 representatives of the regional water organization. Data were collected through structured questionnaires, semi-structured interviews, and secondary sources. Six key indicators were defined in the model: economic resilience (ERI), technological flexibility (FTI), knowledge network strength (KNRI), innovation motivation in practice (MPI), environmental pressure (EPI), and irrigation technology level (IL). Farmers, as the main agents, interacted continuously with local knowledge networks and product markets, and their decision-making rules were shaped by individual motivations, environmental pressures, and the observed behavior of others. To examine the system's response under different conditions, four simulation scenarios were designed: fluctuations in agricultural product prices, introduction of new irrigation technologies at varying adoption rates, changes in the density of knowledge networks, and the occurrence of climate shocks and successive droughts. Quantitative data were analyzed using SPSS, and qualitative data were processed using open and axial coding in MAXQDA. Model validation was conducted by comparing outputs with historical data, consulting local experts, and performing sensitivity analyses to ensure the model accurately represents farmers' behavior and socio-institutional dynamics under various environmental pressures.Results and DiscussionSimulation results showed that farmers' adoption of new technologies and changes in irrigation patterns are influenced by a combination of economic, individual, technological, social, and environmental factors. Farmers with higher economic resilience and denser social networks adopted new technologies faster, resulting in increased water productivity. Environmental pressures, particularly drought and water scarcity, were strong drivers for adoption, but their effects were sustainable only when combined with strong individual motivation and active knowledge networks. The technological flexibility index and innovation motivation were decisive in determining the speed and extent of technology adoption. Social networks and knowledge network strength enhanced collective learning and experience sharing, thereby creating synergistic effects with other indicators. The combination of low economic capacity and high environmental pressure highlighted the need for targeted support and guidance to help farmers adapt to new technologies. Analysis also showed that one-dimensional policies, such as simply providing subsidies or unsupervised training, have limited effectiveness and may even be counterproductive. In contrast, multidimensional policy packages, including targeted and continuous education, performance-based subsidies, strengthening local networks, and transparency in water allocation, create synergistic and sustainable impacts. International experiences indicate that farm schools, participatory local networks, and subsidy reforms can significantly increase farmer engagement and water productivity. Agent-based modeling also allows predicting farmers' responses to policies, testing different scenarios, and optimizing resource allocation before implementation.ConclusionsThe adoption of new irrigation technologies and sustainable water management results from complex interactions among economic, social, institutional, and environmental factors. Successful participatory policies require maintaining a minimum level of water resource sustainability, implementing multidimensional policy packages, strengthening social and institutional networks, and using agent-based modeling tools to assess policy effectiveness. This study demonstrated that the combination of economic indicators, innovation motivation, social networks, and environmental pressures can significantly determine the success or failure of policies. The proposed framework provides a practical and scientific roadmap for sustainable water management in areas affected by water crises.
Original Article
Pressurized Irrigation Systems
Hossein Parvizi; zohre Rafiei; Hadis Hatami; Ali Momenpour
Abstract
Extended AbstractIntroductionDrip irrigation systems play a crucial role in water-efficient agricultural practices. However, clogging in emitters, particularly in labyrinth channels, significantly affects performance and longevity. The deposition of suspended particles within the flow path leads to reduced ...
Read More
Extended AbstractIntroductionDrip irrigation systems play a crucial role in water-efficient agricultural practices. However, clogging in emitters, particularly in labyrinth channels, significantly affects performance and longevity. The deposition of suspended particles within the flow path leads to reduced efficiency, necessitating precise analysis of flow behavior under different operating pressures and salinity conditions. While empirical studies provide valuable insights, computational fluid dynamics (CFD) has emerged as a powerful tool for simulating fluid flow and sedimentation in complex geometries, enabling cost-effective optimization of emitter designs.MethodologyIn this study, flow behavior and sediment deposition in pressure-compensating emitters with labyrinth channels were examined under various salinity and operating pressure conditions. Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulations were performed using COMSOL software, and the results were compared with experimental data. Moreover, in our study the pressure-compensating emitters of three different brands - Netafim (8 and 25 L/h), Eurodrip (8 and 24 L/h), and Peresi Zalvan (8 and 24 L/h)- were examined under three operating pressures (0.5, 1.5, and 2.5 bar) and two water salinity levels (5 and 12 dS/m). The COMSOL software was used for CFD simulations, focusing on flow velocity distribution, pressure dissipation, and sediment deposition within the labyrinth channels. Moreover, Experimental validation was conducted at the National Salinity Research Center in Yazd, Iran to compare simulated sediment deposition with actual results obtained from emitter degradation tests.Results and DiscussionThe analysis of velocity and pressure variations demonstrated that spiral channels, due to their serrated edges, increase flow velocity up to 2.8 m/s, effectively preventing particle deposition. However, in vortex regions and corners, the flow velocity approaches zero, increasing the risk of sediment accumulation. The pressure dissipation analysis revealed that multiple serrations reduce flow pressure in different emitters by 57% to 87%. Furthermore, the comparison between simulated and experimental sediment variations exhibited a high degree of correlation (R² = 0.98). The findings indicate that increasing the inlet water pressure to approximately 2.5 bar and the water salinity to 12 dS/m leads to a 50% and 114% increase in the average sediment volume, respectively. Emitters featuring a pre-settlement zone before the spiral channel demonstrate superior anti-clogging performance. Additionally, increasing the number of flow outlets reduces particle residence time within the channel, thereby lowering the risk of clogging. The findings demonstrated that increasing operating pressure up to 2.5 bar and water salinity resulted in higher sediment levels. In alignment with the simulated results, the laboratory study conducted by Parvizi et al. (2025) on the same emitters demonstrated that applying high pressures leads to an increased influx of particles into the labyrinth channels, thereby heightening the risk of clogging. Additionally, Li et al. (2024) stated that increasing the operating pressure within a specific range can improve the anti-clogging performance of a emitters with a star-shaped channel. However, this operating pressure should not exceed the typical working pressure for this type of emitter, which is approximately 1 bar. Among the tested models, Netafim 25 L/h demonstrated anti-clogging capabilities, attributed to its settling zone preceding the primary labyrinth channel. This structure allowed larger suspended particles to settle before entering finer flow paths, reducing clogging potential. Additionally, multi-exit flow designs, such as Netafim’s triple-channel configuration, can effectively minimized particle retention time, lowering obstruction risks. Increasing pressure up to 2.5 bar and salinity led to higher sediment accumulation, confirming that higher pressures exacerbate clogging risks. These findings align with prior research (Yang et al., 2024; Zhang et al., 2022), which demonstrated that modifying channel curvature and increasing exit pathways enhances clogging resistance. Studies have further confirmed that increasing flow velocity in labyrinth channels optimizes sediment transport mechanisms (Wei et al., 2008; Yu et al., 2018).ConclusionThis research demonstrates that CFD simulation is a reliable tool for predicting and optimizing flow behavior and sediment deposition in pressure-compensating emitters. Overall, higher salinity and an increase in inlet flow pressure up to 2.5 bar led to greater sediment accumulation, which can raise the risk of clogging. The findings of this study demonstrated that the geometry of the spiral channel in drip emitters has a direct impact on flow patterns and clogging behavior. While the serrations in the spiral channel enhance flow velocity and reduce sediment accumulation, flow velocity decreases in vortex regions and corners, increasing the likelihood of particle deposition and clogging risks. Furthermore, it is recommended to reduce the risk of clogging by using emitters with modified curved edges instead of sharp ones. Manufacturers should also consider improving and refining sharp corner structures to enhance performance. Additionally, pressure dissipation is better achieved in emitters with multiple serrations, which likely improves their resistance to clogging. Moreover, this study suggests that CFD enables cost-effective and rapid assessment of pressure and salinity management strategies for pressurized irrigation systems.
Original Article
Irrigation network management
Ali Saberi Varzaneh; Mahmood Naderi
Abstract
Extended AbstractIntroduction
This study aimed to evaluate the permeability of a water supply canal and to quantify water losses arising from the inefficiency of the concrete lining. The “cylindrical chamber” test was proposed and implemented as an in-situ, non-destructive method. A total ...
Read More
Extended AbstractIntroduction
This study aimed to evaluate the permeability of a water supply canal and to quantify water losses arising from the inefficiency of the concrete lining. The “cylindrical chamber” test was proposed and implemented as an in-situ, non-destructive method. A total of 54 concrete specimens—27 water-cured and 27 cured under ambient conditions—were tested using the cylindrical chamber method under a constant pressure of 5 bar for 5 hours. To validate the results, the BS EN 12390 8 standard test was also performed on the same specimens, and regression analysis was conducted between the two methods. The results showed a correlation coefficient of 0.98, indicating high accuracy of the in-situ test. For field applications, direct measurement of penetration depth is impractical, as it is inherently destructive and requires core extraction from the structural element. To overcome this limitation, one of the key advantages of the cylindrical chamber method was employed—its ability to measure the total volume of water infiltrating the concrete surface over a fixed time under a constant hydraulic head. Statistical analysis of the differences between this study and reference data, using mean absolute percentage error (MAPE) and linear correlation coefficient (R²), showed that the mean infiltration volume differed by less than 10%, with R² = 0.97. These results confirm the low deviation and strong correlation, indicating the accuracy and reliability of the cylindrical chamber test for classifying concrete permeability. In-situ measurements at 11 selected points along the Varzaneh city water supply canal revealed infiltration volumes exceeding 25 mL at all locations, falling within the high-permeability range and signifying substantial water losses. Mercury intrusion porosimetry and SEM imaging further showed that the absence of curing increased porosity and total pore volume by 7% and 69.4%, respectively.MethodologyThe cylindrical chamber method is a precise and versatile technique for quantifying the permeability of concrete and similar construction materials under laboratory or field conditions. The testing procedure comprised the following steps:1. Surface preparation: The concrete surface was dried to a constant mass, and all surface contaminants were removed to ensure proper adhesion.2. Fixture installation: A steel annular ring was bonded to the prepared concrete surface using epoxy adhesive. After full curing of the adhesive, the cylindrical chamber was mounted securely on the metal fixture.3. Water pressurization: The chamber was filled with de-aired water, and the internal pressure was applied using a calibrated hand-operated lever. The imposed water pressure—5 bar (0.5 MPa)—was continuously maintained and monitored via the gauge installed on the apparatus.4. Testing duration: Pressure was sustained for 5 hours on the exposed concrete surface.This method allows quantification of water infiltration without sample extraction, thereby preserving the structural integrity of the tested element.Results and Discussion Selected outcomes of the in-situ cylindrical chamber tests on the Varzaneh canal are summarized in Table 6. While numerous measurements were performed along the entire length of the canal, representative results are reported here to illustrate key trends. The findings confirm that the concrete lining of the Varzaneh water supply canal exhibits very high hydraulic permeability, significantly exceeding recommended thresholds. In the evaluated sections, the infiltration volumes surpassed 25 mL, classifying them in the high-permeability range per the adopted criteria. Such elevated permeability is directly associated with excessive seepage losses, contributing to increased water demand and reduced delivery efficiency. These observations strongly suggest that the measured reduction in outflow is not the result of unauthorized water extraction along the canal’s route. Rather, the dominant factor is the inadequate impermeability of the concrete lining, which permits substantial leakage through the canal body.Conclusions- Regression analysis revealed a strong linear correlation (R² = 0.98) between the cylindrical chamber method and the BS EN 12390 8 (British Standard) test, confirming the reliability of the field measurements. This enabled accurate in-situ assessment of the Varzaneh canal’s permeability without inducing structural damage. - Concrete with an infiltration volume < 12 mL is classified as low permeability; 12–25 mL denotes medium permeability, and > 25 mL corresponds to high permeability. The majority of tested points on the Varzaneh canal exceed 25 mL, indicating widespread high-permeability zones. - The substantial difference between inflow and outflow in the canal is primarily attributable to leakage through the concrete lining, rather than unauthorized withdrawals. Consequently, a large proportion of the supplied water fails to reach its intended destination in the city of Varzaneh.
