Original Article
Hydraulic
Amirreza Shahriari; Mehdi Daryaee; SeyedMahmood Kashefipour; Mohammadreza Zayeri
Abstract
IntroductionSide weirs are widely used hydraulic structures in irrigation, drainage, and flood control systems. These structures allow excess water to be diverted from the main channel, helping to manage flow capacity effectively. In converging channels, the presence of guiding structures, such as flow ...
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IntroductionSide weirs are widely used hydraulic structures in irrigation, drainage, and flood control systems. These structures allow excess water to be diverted from the main channel, helping to manage flow capacity effectively. In converging channels, the presence of guiding structures, such as flow deflectors, can influence the hydraulic performance of side weirs. Recent studies have highlighted the potential of guiding structures to enhance discharge capacity. However, uncertainties persist regarding the impact of convergence and added structures on specific energy variations in the main channel. The classical assumption of spatially varied flow with lateral outflow suggests that specific energy remains constant along the weir. This study aims to evaluate the validity of this assumption in converging channels with guiding structures by investigating specific energy variations using numerical simulations. MethodologyA three-dimensional numerical model was developed using FLOW-3D to simulate flow over a converging side weir. The experimental setup by Maranzoni et al., (2017) was used as a reference for model validation. The numerical domain consisted of a converging channel with a side weir, and guiding structures were placed on the weir crest at three different longitudinal positions (upstream, middle, and downstream) with installation angles of 60°, 90°, and 120° relative to the horizontal.The Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS) equations were solved using the RNG k-ε turbulence model. Boundary conditions included a specified flow rate at the inlet, a pressure outlet at the downstream boundary, and wall conditions for the channel boundaries. Grid independence was ensured by testing different mesh resolutions, with the final model consisting of approximately 1.5 million cells. The numerical model was validated against experimental data, with a maximum simulation error of less than 4%. Results and DiscussionThe numerical results showed that guiding structures influenced specific energy variations along the weir. The middle position of the weir exhibited the least change in specific energy (0.8%) , making it the optimal location for installing guiding structures. In contrast, upstream and downstream placements resulted in greater energy variations, with mean differences of 1.17% and 1.37%, respectively.The effect of installation angle on specific energy variations was negligible. Across different angles, the mean variation ranged from 1.03% to 1.22%, indicating that the angle of installation had little impact on energy conservation. The influence of the inflow Froude number was also examined. For Froude numbers below 0.3, specific energy variations remained under 0.5%. As the Froude number increased to 0.45, energy variations reached 1.6%, which is still within an acceptable range. These findings suggest that specific energy variations are more sensitive to the location of guiding structures than their installation angle.The results confirm that the classical assumption of constant specific energy in spatially varied flow with lateral outflow holds even in converging channels with guiding structures. Although minor deviations were observed, they were within acceptable limits for practical applications. ConclusionsIn this study, by comparing the simulation results with experimental data, it was found that the model used for simulating flow over side weirs possesses high accuracy and reliably predicts the actual performance of these structures. One of the key aspects of this research is the accurate simulation of side weirs in converging channels. Despite numerous studies in this area, especially in recent years, certain aspects of the design and hydraulic behavior of these types of weirs still require more detailed investigation and numerical modeling.The findings of this study demonstrated that the classical concept of specific energy stability in gradually varied flow with decreasing discharge remains valid even under converging conditions and in the presence of guiding structures. The average difference in specific energy between the upstream and downstream of the weir in all simulations was 1.24%. Additionally, the influence of the Froude number on the increase in specific energy variations was clearly observed. However, within the range of Froude numbers less than 0.5, which is typically dominant in irrigation and drainage channels, specific energy variations did not exceed 3%.Finally, for future research, it is recommended to investigate the effects of factors such as the crest height of the side weir, the presence of orifices within the weir structure, and the influence of supercritical flow regimes on specific energy variations along side weirs, in order to develop a more comprehensive understanding of their hydraulic behavior. AcknowledgementWe are grateful to the Research Council of Shahid Chamran University of Ahvaz for financial support (GN: SCU.WH1402.31370).
Original Article
Irrigation network management
mojtaba noori; Rouhallah Rezaei; mohammad kazem rahimi
Abstract
Introduction Water scarcity can result from drought, a decline in water resources, or a combination of both factors. Under these conditions, the term "crisis" aptly describes the situation. The global water crisis is among the most significant threats facing humanity; ...
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Introduction Water scarcity can result from drought, a decline in water resources, or a combination of both factors. Under these conditions, the term "crisis" aptly describes the situation. The global water crisis is among the most significant threats facing humanity; it is estimated that approximately 3.5 billion people will experience water shortages by 2025, with global water demand projected to rise by 30% by 2050. To mitigate farmers' vulnerability and mitigate the impacts of water scarcity, the concept of resilience has gained attention. Resilience reflects the capacity of an individual or system to adapt effectively during critical situations and identify rational strategies to overcome crises. Today, resilience serves not only as a tool for crisis management but also as a preventive and predictive measure aimed at maintaining orderly continuity under various conditions. Notably, the agricultural sector faces earlier and more severe consequences of water scarcity than other sectors due to the direct threats it poses to farmers' livelihoods and national food security. Given this critical importance, the objective of this study is to identify and analyze key drivers that influence the development of farmers' resilience against water scarcity crises. Materials and MethodsGiven that "capacity development" pertains to future-oriented activities, this study utilized the critical uncertainty approach and the cross-effects matrix, common methods in futures research, to identify relevant drivers. Initially, a comprehensive review of existing literature was conducted to identify significant issues related to resilience against water scarcity. After summarizing, consolidating, and eliminating redundant or overlapping concepts, these factors were compiled into questionnaires and presented during semi-structured interviews with experts, specialists, and key informants.Participants rated each factor based on "importance" and "uncertainty" for the horizon of 1413 using a five-point Likert scale (very low, low, medium, high, very high). Subsequently, experts weighted and ranked these factors according to their perceived importance and uncertainty. Interaction analysis was then performed to examine interrelationships among key factors, assessing their mutual influence. This method, implemented through specialized futures research software MICMAC, is particularly suitable for analyzing variable interdependencies and compiling expert insights. MICMAC employs a matrix-based approach to elucidate the relationships among influential factors in qualitative research. ResultsUsing the critical uncertainty approach, factors identified as both highly important and uncertain were deemed key drivers. Average weights assigned to each factor were plotted onto an importance-uncertainty matrix, allowing the selection of critical factors. Identified factors included: (1) reforming policies that incentivize the production of water-intensive crops; (2) acceptance of the severity of the crisis within the agricultural community; (3) systemic governance of agricultural water resources; (4) promoting optimal water-use practices among farmers; (5) controlling excessive agricultural water extraction; (6) reforming regional cropping patterns; and (7) promoting sustainable livelihoods independent of water-intensive practices.Results demonstrated that policy reforms targeting water-intensive crop production, enhancing water-use culture among farmers, and adjusting regional cropping patterns significantly impact farmers' resilience to water scarcity. Additionally, key-dependent factors highly influenced by others were the agricultural community's acknowledgement of crisis severity, systemic governance of agricultural water resources, and regulation of excessive water withdrawals. ConclusionsThis study identified three primary drivers crucial to developing farmers' resilience in Zanjan province: recognizing the severity of the water crisis, adopting systemic governance approaches to water resources, and regulating excessive agricultural water withdrawals. These drivers are interconnected, implying that changes in one factor will inevitably influence the others. Effective management of these drivers is thus essential for advancing resilience among farmers facing water scarcity. Given the critical status of water resources in Zanjan, where five out of seven plains are classified as prohibited or critical zones, provincial administrators and planners, along with the broader agricultural community, must acknowledge the depth of this crisis. By adopting systemic approaches and managing water consumption responsibly, significant strides can be made towards building resilience to the ongoing water scarcity crisis.
Original Article
Irrigation network management
Mohammad Mehdi Ghasemi; javad ghasemi
Abstract
Introduction
Undoubtedly, drought is one of the most complex and major natural hazards that can affect many economic sectors and reduce both water availability and water quality necessary for productive agriculture. Globally, most freshwater (around 70 percent) is used by the agricultural sector, and ...
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Introduction
Undoubtedly, drought is one of the most complex and major natural hazards that can affect many economic sectors and reduce both water availability and water quality necessary for productive agriculture. Globally, most freshwater (around 70 percent) is used by the agricultural sector, and in the future, demand for agricultural freshwater will increase. However, due to population growth and the need for food security, coupled with the decline in available water resources caused by over-extraction of water resources, drought, and climate change, water scarcity has become one of the challenges of the agricultural sector. In Iran, the agricultural sector, as one of the most important economic activities, is heavily dependent on water resources; however, due to drought and mismanagement of water resources, it faces serious challenges in ensuring sustainable agricultural water resources, which are leading to an unprecedented crisis in the water sector. To manage this crisis, in addition to the role of government institutions, farmers and local communities must have the ability to adapt to climate change and drought, and resilience capabilities. During the drought period, farms that had enough resilience capabilities were able to continue their activities, which could lead to the sustainability of the agricultural and rural sector. Accordingly, the main purpose of this research was to analyze the dimensions of farmers' resilience to drought and water crisis in the agricultural sector of Iran.
Methodology
In this study, the content analysis method was used to analyze the dimensions of farmers' resilience to drought. To conduct the research, the following steps were taken: 1) Identifying the main problem and research objectives; 2) Selecting the samples or texts; 3) Defining, coding, and categorizing semantic units; 4) Assessing the reliability of the results; and 5) Interpreting the findings. The aim of content analysis in this study was to gain a comprehensive understanding of the "components of farmers' resilience to drought and water crises in the agriculture sector". The sampling framework involved reviewing papers in this research field (published in scientific journals between 2008 and 2024). Accordingly, 112 papers were identified, out of which 78 papers were directly relevant to the research topic. Finally, each selected paper was assigned a code. The third step involved defining semantic units and coding them. Accordingly, words, sentences, and paragraphs were considered as semantic units. These units were then coded with a short phrase. Subsequently, subcategories and categories were formed by summarizing the coded concepts. In the fourth step, to ensure the reliability of the results, researcher triangulation was used. In the final step, the findings were interpreted by comparing subcategories and categories and referring back to the data.
Results and Discussion
Based on the analysis of selected papers, five categories and 63 concepts were identified and extracted in the context of the farmers' resilience to drought and water crisis in the agricultural sector, that were summarized into five categories, including: "economic capital," "social capital," "human capital," "physical and infrastructural capital," and "natural capital". The research findings indicated that, regarding economic capital, "diversification of economic activities and job opportunities in rural areas" and "access to bank facilities" were in the highest ranks; in relation to social capital, "cooperation, participation, and group and collective activities" and "membership in associations, cooperatives, organizations, credit funds, etc. for managing drought crisis" were in the highest ranks; Concerning human capital "participation in extension courses" and "awareness of the drought crisis and its consequences" were in the highest ranks; regarding physical and infrastructure capital, "access to welfare, infrastructural, and development services" and "use of technical and infrastructural equipment" were in the highest ranks; and finally regarding natural capital "using appropriate and modern irrigation management methods" and "using modern methods in production and crops improvement" were in the highest ranks.
Conclusions
For success in the field of farmers' resilience to drought, all the mentioned dimensions must be addressed simultaneously and through a comprehensive approach, because many of these components interact with each other and can either strengthen or weaken one another. Hardware and software requirements, technical and infrastructural aspects, and education and awareness should be considered alongside the involvement of local communities and formal and informal organizations. A one-dimensional approach cannot yield desirable results. Although some dimensions of resilience have been studied and examined less than others, which does not indicate their lesser importance compared to other dimensions, on the other hand, examining the direct and indirect effects and consequences of these dimensions is sometimes challenging. Finally, farmers' resilience to drought and water crisis and the development of resilient behaviors in farmers and local communities require the availability of necessary infrastructure and special support. This is a cross-sectoral and inter-ministerial issue, and serious decisions need to be made in the legislative, policy-making, and supervisory sectors.
Original Article
Hydraulic
Sasan Nejati; Mehdi Meftah halaghi; Abdolreza Zahiri; Younes Aminpour
Abstract
Introduction
This study investigates scour downstream of triangular–triangular compound weirs, which generate unique flow patterns leading to increased turbulence and scour. Initially, laboratory experiments were conducted to identify key influencing factors, followed by dimensional analysis ...
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Introduction
This study investigates scour downstream of triangular–triangular compound weirs, which generate unique flow patterns leading to increased turbulence and scour. Initially, laboratory experiments were conducted to identify key influencing factors, followed by dimensional analysis to determine relevant dimensionless parameters. Three artificial intelligence algorithms Artificial Neural Network (ANN), Adaptive Neuro-Fuzzy Inference System (ANFIS), and Support Vector Machine (SVM) were then used to perform sensitivity analysis and predict scour depth. The research enables a comparative evaluation of these models in predicting complex hydraulic phenomena.
Methodology
This study examines the scouring phenomenon downstream of triangular-triangular compound weirs using experimental methods and artificial intelligence models. The investigated weir was constructed by combining two triangular sections with angles of 90° and 150°, installed in a 6.7-meter long and 90-centimeter wide experimental flume at the Water Research Institute of the Ministry of Energy. Tests were conducted with four different flow rates ranging from 7.08 to 54.94 liters per second using sediments with an average diameter of 0.5 mm. The scouring profile was analyzed through digital imaging and Grapher software.
For the modeling section, four artificial intelligence methods were employed to predict scouring hole dimensions: ANN, ANFIS and SVM. These models were selected for their capability to identify nonlinear relationships and complex patterns in data, with their performance evaluated using RMSE, Nash-Sutcliffe efficiency (NS), and MARE metrics. This study provides a framework for comparing various AI methods in hydraulic problems and can contribute to improving the design of hydraulic structures.
Results and Discussion
Given the complex and uncertain nature of scour phenomena in slope control structures, as evidenced by previo research and the significant errors in conventional models, this study employed AI approaches (ANN, ANFIS and SVM) that require less understanding of underlying physical mechanisms. A Comprehensive sensitivity analysis was first conducted on dimensionless input parameters (FrD, t/t0, and ytw/yh), with all algorithms implemented in MATLAB and Python. The models were trained on 70% of experimental data and tested on 30%, while a thorough parameter sensitivity analysis was performed across all four models to enhance prediction accuracy of scour hole dimensions.
In the ANN modeling approach, a sensitivity analysis of input parameters was conducted by varying each input by ±10% to evaluate their relative influence on scour hole dimensions. The results revealed that the particle Froude number had the greatest impact (45%) on maximum scour depth, while t/t0 significantly affected scour hole length (32%). The SVM model's sensitivity analysis showed that the particle Froude number had the highest average influence (55%), whereas ytw/yh had the least (10%). Similarly, ANFIS analysis indicated the particle Froude number's dominant effect (62% average) with ytw/yh again showing minimal impact. Comparative evaluation of error metrics demonstrated that the SVM model outperformed the other proposed methods, exhibiting superior accuracy and performance in predicting scour characteristics.
Conclusions
This study aimed to evaluate the performance of artificial intelligence models in predicting the dimensions of the scour hole downstream of a triangular–triangular compound weir, based on laboratory data. Three AI models: Artificial Neural Network (ANN), Adaptive Neuro-Fuzzy Inference System (ANFIS), and Support Vector Machine (SVM) were assessed. The results showed that all three models were capable of estimating key scour parameters, but the SVM model outperformed the others in terms of higher accuracy, lower relative error, and better agreement with experimental data. From a hydraulic perspective, the findings indicated that the particle Froude number was one of the most influential parameters on scour dimensions. As the Froude number increases, both the maximum scour depth and scour hole length significantly increase, highlighting the critical role of flow energy in scour development downstream of compound weirs. The results also showed that under concentrated flow conditions and with increasing relative time, the scour hole continued to expand, indicating a progressive development process. Based on these results, it is recommended that in the design of compound weirs especially triangular–triangular types the effects of the Froude number and inflow conditions should be carefully considered to prevent the formation of deep scour holes. Furthermore, the SVM model, as a precise predictive tool, can assist hydraulic structure designers in evaluating scour risk and implementing appropriate protective measures (e.g., protective aprons, stepped profiles, or more resistant materials) before construction. These findings can contribute to improving the safety of hydraulic structures, reducing scour-related damage, and optimizing future designs.
Original Article
River engineering
Reza Bavandpoori Gilan; Rasool Ghobadian; Ali Arman
Abstract
IntroductionBlockage in the culvert is a major factor in reducing its efficiency. The effect of culvert blockage intensifies by progress in the barrel. This study investigated the effect of blockage progression on scour downstream of box culvert using experimental tests, which hasn’t been investigated ...
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IntroductionBlockage in the culvert is a major factor in reducing its efficiency. The effect of culvert blockage intensifies by progress in the barrel. This study investigated the effect of blockage progression on scour downstream of box culvert using experimental tests, which hasn’t been investigated in previous research. In order to more accurately identify the flow pattern, especially along the culvert channel and the interaction of flow and sediment downstream, numerical simulations were performed with FLOW-3D software. The findings can aid engineers in considering the effects of scour and blockage in the design of more efficient culverts. MethodologyUsing the modeling of natural phenomena in a laboratory environment, we can understand the behavior of a phenomenon in a real environment. The planned experiments were conducted in the Hydraulic Laboratory of the Water Sciences and Engineering Department at Razi University. The width, depth, and length of the flume are 0.50 m, 0.60 m, and 5.40 m, respectively. The culvert, with a length of 30 cm and a rectangular cross-section measuring 10 cm in width and 7.50 cm in height, is made of glass with a thickness of 8 mm. To ensure developed flow upon entering the culvert, it is positioned 3.60 m from the beginning of the flume. At the inlet and outlet of the culvert, a type 2 USBR transition with equal angles of convergence and divergence of 26.50 degrees is used. To control the downstream water level at the desired level, a sharp-crested weir with variable height is installed downstream of the culvert. the floor of the flume upstream of the structure is uniformly covered with concrete, and the downstream section is filled by uniform sediment with diameter of 0.85 mm and thickness of 20 cm. A total of 36 experiment were conducted with three flow rate of 2.95, 5.38 and 8.03 L/s, four downstream depth of 4.5, 10.3, 16.3 and 23 cm with three blockage scenarios 0, 0.2L and 0.32L where L is the barrel length. After reaching equilibrium in each experiment, the height of the installed weir was increased to prevent a rapid drop in water level, then the pump was turned off. After complete drainage, bed changes were recorded using a 3D scanner equipped with a Kinect camera, which had an accuracy of ±0.2 mm. The data extracted from the camera was then prepared for plotting the necessary graphs. Finally, the bed surface was carefully leveled for the next experiment. Results and DiscussionBased on the comparison of experimental and numerical results, it was determined that the numerical model has sufficient ability to simulate the water surface and its results are reliable. Regarding sedimentary results, comparison of the results test Q2 yt3 α32 β32 by both experimental and numerical methods showed the formation of a scour hole immediately after the end of the outlet transition and the creation of a sedimentation mound after the hole. Investigation of the effect of relative tailwater depth on scour depth in unblocked conditions showed that at a fixed relative tailwater depth, the dimensionless maximum scour depth increases with the increasing flow intensity parameter. Specifically, as the flow intensity increases from 0.45 to 1.24 at a constant tailwater depth, the flow velocity inside the culvert barrel increases, and consequently, water exits the culvert downstream with greater velocity. This increase in velocity at a fixed tailwater depth leads to higher shear stress on the bed and enhanced flow power in sediment transport and bed erosion. Regarding the effect of the progression of blockage in the culvert barrel on scour at the outlet, it can be said that when the inlet section of the culvert is blocked, the maximum scour depth downstream of the culvert decreases. The reason for this is that, in the case of fixed blockage, an eddy flow with a horizontal axis is created just behind the obstruction, causing the streamlines separate and resulting in intense turbulence in the channel, in such a way that the flow hits the culvert roof several times and then dives back toward the channel floor. This process leads to significant energy loss in the flow, reducing the flow's potential for downstream scour compared to the unblocked condition. Conclusionsprogression of the blockage in the culvert barrel can affect the flow hydraulic within it and has notable impacts on the scour of the downstream bed. Due to the impossibility of measuring some parameters, such as the Maximum scour hole depth at desired times in the laboratory environment due to high flow turbulence, the powerful FLOW-3D numerical model was used after its calibration. The results indicated that in both conditions, with and without blockage, the maximum scour depth significantly affected by the changes in flow intensity and tailwater depth. An increase in flow intensity leads to an increase in scour depth. In unblocked conditions, there is a critical relative tailwater depth for each specified flow intensity, below which scour depth decreases with increasing tailwater depth, and above which it increases. The laboratory results showed that for a fixed tailwater depth, with an increase in flow intensity, the location of maximum scour depth moved closer to the end of the culvert outlet. The blockage at the inlet section on culvert conduit, with blockage percentages of 20% and 32%, significantly affected the erosion and turbulence of the flow downstream. Compared to the unblocked condition, the presence of the blockage created turbulence in the flow, resulting in a significant drop in flow energy, which decreased the scour depth. However, as the tailwater depth increases, the impact of blockage on scour diminishes due to reduced turbulence in the channel. Given the great importance of water structures, especially culverts, in conveying flood, it is necessary for the designer to pay special attention to the issue of downstream scour when designing the culvert, because the poor performance of the culvert in conveying water during a flood can directly target the health of human communities living downstream and the efficiency of communication infrastructure. AcknowledgmentWe would like to thank the respected professors of the Department of Water Science and Engineering, Razi University, who prepared the necessary laboratory equipment for this research.
Original Article
Irrigation network management
Hosein Atashgaran; Massumeh Rostamabadi; Saeed Kazemi Mohsenabadi
Abstract
Introduction Groundwater resources, as the main supplier of agricultural, drinking and industrial uses, are affected by polluting factors such as irrigation return water, urban and rural wastewater, and industrial effluents. Alborz County, one of the important agricultural and ...
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Introduction Groundwater resources, as the main supplier of agricultural, drinking and industrial uses, are affected by polluting factors such as irrigation return water, urban and rural wastewater, and industrial effluents. Alborz County, one of the important agricultural and industrial regions of Qazvin Province, is at risk of groundwater pollution due to its increasing development and population. Due to the lack of implementation of appropriate wastewater disposal systems, a large volume of pollutants, including nitrate, enter the aquifer of this plain. The aim of this study is to investigate the vulnerability of the Alborz County aquifer using the DRASTIC method and to utilize the Geographic Information System (GIS) to determine areas susceptible to pollution and to provide management solutions to maintain the quality of groundwater resources. Materials and MethodsGeographical Location Alborz County is located in the northeast of Qazvin Province with an area of about 428 square kilometers. The county borders Qazvin County to the north, Abyeq County to the east, Abyek and Buin Zahra County to the south, and Qazvin County to the west. This region is heavily affected by environmental pressures due to industrial and agricultural development. DRASTIC Model The DRASTIC method, introduced by the US Environmental Protection Agency, focuses on assessing groundwater vulnerability using seven key parameters: depth of groundwater (D), net recharge (R), aquifer media (A), soil media (S), topography (T), Impact of vadoes zone (I), Hydraulic conductivity of the aquifer (C). A rate value and a weight were determined for each of these parameters based on table (1), and then these data were processed in ARCGIS software to prepare a vulnerability map of the region.Table 1- Drastic parameter weight and rate table for Alborz CountyCITSARDParameter3512345Weight1--45--68--104--76--86--91--2Rate The vulnerability index (DI) was calculated based on the combination of these factors according to equation (1) and levels of vulnerability were identified. Based on the analysis, the vulnerability index of the Alborz County plain varies between 87 and 136. According to the Drastic classification, the study area is divided into two zones of low vulnerability (31 percent) and medium vulnerability (69 percent). The western and central areas of the aquifer have the highest vulnerability potential due to the high groundwater level and low land slope and require more monitoring. To examine the accuracy of the vulnerability zoning map, the nitrate level of groundwater in the area was examined. The results showed that areas with higher vulnerability have higher nitrate concentrations, indicating a direct relationship between the vulnerability index and groundwater quality. The most important polluting factor in this area is the excessive use of chemical fertilizers and the lack of urban wastewater treatment systems. In order to assess the effect of different parameters on the vulnerability index, a sensitivity analysis of layer removal was performed. The results showed that the most important parameters affecting vulnerability are Impact of vadoes zone (I) and net recharge (R). Removing these factors caused significant changes in the vulnerability index, indicating their critical role in the transfer of contaminants to groundwater. Conclusion This research, by providing vulnerability maps, provides an important tool for planning and managing groundwater resources in Alborz County and will assist officials in major environmental and executive decisions. The results showed that Alborz County has areas with a moderate level of vulnerability, and the western and central parts of the aquifer should be considered as critical areas. Accordingly, the following suggestions are made: Management of chemical fertilizer use: Modifying the cropping pattern and monitoring the use of nitrate fertilizers in order to reduce the transfer of contaminants to groundwater.Implementation of urban and rural wastewater treatment projects: To prevent the entry of contaminated wastewater into groundwater resources. Monitoring well drilling in vulnerable areas: Preventing hydraulic communication between contaminated and uncontaminated aquifers. Accurate monitoring of groundwater quality: Implementing continuous monitoring systems to control and manage groundwater pollution.
